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The Hershey Company

The Hershey Company

The Hershey Company , formerly Hershey Foods Corporation (name changed in April 2005), commonly called Hershey's, is the world's largest chocolate company. The headquarters are located in Hershey, Pennsylvania, a town permeated by the aroma of cocoa on some days and home to Hershey’s Chocolate World. It was founded by Milton S. Hershey in 1894 as the Hershey Chocolate Company, a subsidiary of his Lancaster Caramel Company. Hershey's candies are sold worldwide. Hershey's is one of the oldest chocolate companies in the United States, and an American icon for its chocolate bar. Today, The Hershey Company owns many other candy companies and is also affiliated with Hershey Entertainment and Resorts Company, which runs Hersheypark, a chocolate-themed amusement park, the Hershey Bears hockey team, HersheyPark Stadium, and the Giant Center. Hershey's chocolate candies are widely popular in the United States and many other countries in the world.

History of Hershey's

After completing an apprenticeship to a confectioner in 1876, Milton Snavely Hershey founded a candy shop in Philadelphia, which failed six years later. After trying unsuccessfully to manufacture candy in New York, Hershey returned to Pennsylvania, where he founded the Lancaster Caramel Company, whose use of fresh milk in caramels proved successful. In 1900, Hershey sold his caramel company for $1,000,000 ($22,155,604 in today's currency) and began to concentrate on chocolate manufacturing. In 1903, Hershey began construction of a chocolate plant in what became Hershey, Pennsylvania. The milk chocolate bars manufactured at this plant proved successful, and the company grew rapidly thereafter. In 1907 Hershey introduced the small flat bottomed conical shaped pieces of chocolate which Mr. Hershey would name "Hershey's Kisses". While initially they were individually wrapped by hand with squares of foil, in 1921 machine wrapping was introduced and added the small paper ribbon to the top of the package indicating that it was a genuine Hershey product. The product was trademarked 3 years later and went on to become one of the most successful and well known products ever produced by the company. Other products introduced include MR. Goodbar (1925), Hershey’s Syrup (1926), chocolate chips (1928), and the Krackel bar (1938). During the 1930s, the Congress of Industrial Organizations sent the veteran organizer Miles Sweeney to unionize the chocolate workers. The workers held a sitdown strike, occupying the plant for several days. Hershey refused to negotiate with the union, and, apparently with the Milton Hershey's approval, local dairy farmers forcibly ejected the workers from the plant, though with only minor injuries. Hershey later tried to form a company union. In 1940, over two years after the defeat of the CIO union, an affiliate of the American Federation of Labor successfully organized Hershey's workers under the leadership of John Shearer, who became the local's first president. Currently, Local 464 of the Bakery, Confectionary, Tobacco Workers, and Grain Millers represents the Hershey workers, and although it calls itself the "Chocolate Workers," it has successfully organized local workers in other industries.

Chocolate

Today, most of Hershey's chocolate products are not made using traditional European recipes, but instead use less cocoa and a higher incorporation of sugar. Though still highly popular, they are not as popular in France, Germany, or other countries with a strong chocolate tradition. Since 1988, Hershey's acquired the rights to manufacture and distribute many Cadbury-branded products in the United States. The Cadbury creme eggs sold in the U.S., however, are imported by Hershey directly from Cadbury in the U.K. In July 2005, Hershey's announced that they would be acquiring Berkeley, California-based boutique chocolate-maker Scharffen Berger.

Philanthropic giving

The Hershey Company is owned mostly by the Milton Hershey Trust Fund, which maintains the Milton Hershey Boys School and Milton Hershey Medical Center, among other projects. Milton Hershey was famous for his generosity. Since 1999, The Hershey Company has sponsored the Elizabethtown College Honors Program. The endowment promotes higher education at Elizabethtown College.

Helen Caldicott and the Hershey Company

Anti-nuclear power activist Helen Caldicott has alleged that the 1979 partial meltdown at Three Mile Island contaminated the countryside near Hershey with strontium-90 which cows then used for grazing. She claims the cows would have passed the contamination on in their milk to the milk chocolate produced in the nearby factory. However, the TMI incident released no Sr-90. Only trace amounts of iodine-131 - with a half-life of only eight days - were released during the incident. The remaining radioactive products were noble gases, which do not accumulate in living tissue and therefore would not have entered the food chain.

External links

- [http://www.hersheys.com Official Hershey's chocolate and candy site]
- [http://www.thehersheycompany.com Official Hershey corporate site] Category:Fortune 500 companies Category:Confectionery Category:Companies based in Pennsylvania Category:Chocolatiers

April

April is the fourth month of the year in the Gregorian Calendar and one of four with the length of 30 days. April begins (astrologically) with the sun in the sign of Aries and ends in the sign of Taurus. Astronomically speaking, the sun begins in the constellation of Pisces and ends in the constellation of Aries. The derivation of the name (Latin aprilis) is uncertain. The traditional etymology from the Latin aperire, "to open," in allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to "open," is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of ἁνοιξις (opening) for spring. This seems very possible, though, as all the Roman months were named in honour of divinities, and as April was sacred to Venus, the Festum Veneris et Fortunae Virilis being held on the first day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month Aphrilis, from her Greek name Aphrodite, or from the Etruscan name Apru. Jacob Grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero, Aper or Aprus. On the fourth and the five following days, games (Ludi Megalenses) were celebrated in honour of Cybele; on the fifth there was the Festum Fortunae Publicae; on the tenth (?) games in the circus, and on the nineteenth equestrian combats, in honour of Ceres; on the twenty-first--which was regarded as the birthday of Rome--the Vinalia urbana, when the wine of the previous autumn was first tasted; on the twenty-fifth, the Robigalia, for the averting of mildew; and on the twenty-eighth and four following days, the riotous Floralia. The Anglo-Saxons called April Oster-monath or Eostur-monath, the period sacred to Eostre or Ostara, the pagan Saxon goddess of spring, from whose name is derived the modern Easter. St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve, with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the twenty-fourth. In China the symbolical ploughing of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood takes place in their third month, which frequently corresponds to our April; and in Japan the feast of Dolls is celebrated in the same month. The "days of April" (journées d'avril) is a name appropriated in French history to a series of insurrections at Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in 1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial known as the procès d'avril. April was originally the second month of the Roman calendar and had 29 days. Julius Caesar's calendar reform in 45 BCE resulted in April having 30 days and becoming the fourth month, as the year now began in January.

The Tragic Month of April

Wars that started/ended in April include
- American Revolution Started (Paul Revere's Ride: April 18-19 1775)
- American Civil War (Started April 1861, Ended April 1865, thus "Across 5 Aprils")
- The Rwandan Genocide began in April 1994
- The Bosnian War began in the first days April 1992
- World War II (Germany Surrenders in April, 1945) Other Tragedies that have occurred in the month of April include
- President Abraham Lincoln's Assassination (April 14,1865)
- 1906 San Francisco Earthquake (April 18, 1906)
- The sinking of the RMS Titanic (April 14-15,1912)
- Martin Luther King Jr. Assassinated (April 4,1968)
- Super Tornado Outbreak (April 3-4,1974)
- Chernobyl nuclear accident (April 26,1986)
- The bloody end to the Branch Dividan siege in Waco, Texas (April 19,1993)
- The Oklahoma City Bombing (April 19, 1995)
- Columbine High School shooting (April 20,1999)
- Death of Pope John Paul II (April 2, 2005)
- The first use of poison gas at the second battle of Ypres in April 1915

Trivia

- April begins on the same day of week as July in all years and also January in leap years.
- April's flower is the daisy and sweet pea.
- April's birthstone is the diamond.

April Events

Monthlong events in April

- Chocolate Eaters Month
- Grass Month
- Pets Are Wonderful Month
- Uh-huh Month
- Cancer Control Month
- Marcus H. Birthday (National Holiday in Australia)
- Child Abuse Prevention Month
- Freedom Shrine Month
- International Guitar Month
- Keep America Beautiful Month
- Mathematics Education Month
- Multicultural Communication Month
- National Anxiety Month
- National Garden Month
- National Home Improvement Month
- National Humor Month
- National Occupational Therapy Month
- National Welding Month
- Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Month
- Philatelic Societies Month
- VD Awareness Month
- National Food Month
- Stress Awareness Month
- Alcohol Awareness Month
- Holy Humor Month
- International Amateur Radio Month
- International Twit Award Month
- Month of the Young Child
- National Florida Tomato Month
- National Knuckles Down Month
- National Sexually Transmitted Diseases Education and Awareness Month
- National Woodworking Month
- Sea Cadet Month
- Thai Heritage Month
- Sports Eye Safety Month
- Community Services Month (California)
- Listening Awareness Month
- Autism Awareness Month

Weeklong events in April

1st Week in April
- Medic Alert Week
- Cherry Blossom Festival
- Publicity Stunt Week
- National Birthparents Week
- Week of the Young Child
- Straw Hat Week
- National Bake Week (begins 1st Mon)
- Consider Christianity Week
- National Reading a Road Map Week 2nd Week in April
- Be Kind to Animals Week
- Masters Golf Tournament
- National Medical Laboratory Week
- Private Property Week (10th-16th)
- National Library Week
- Harmony Week
- National Garden Week
- TV Turn-Off Week
- National Guitar Week
- National Building Safety Week
- National Home Safety Week 3rd Week in April
- National Police Week
- Boys and Girls Club Week
- National Coin Week
- Bike Safety Week
- National Bubblegum Week
- Pan American Week
- National Week of the Ocean
- National Crime Victims’ Rights Week
- National Volunteer Week
- National Adult Films Week Last Week in April
- Forest Week
- National Lingerie Week
- Canada-US Goodwill Week
- Big Brothers/Sisters Appreciation Week
- Consumer Protection Week
- National TV-Free Week
- Jewish Heritage Week
- Keep America Beautiful Week
- National YMCA Week
- Professional Secretaries Week
- Intergenerational Week
- Reading Is Fun Week
- Egg Salad Week
- Teacher Appreciation Week (begins Last Mon) A Week in April
- Astronomy Week (determined by 1st Quarter Moon)

April Movable Daily Holidays

1st Sunday
- Set-Your Clock-Forward-Day
- Daylight Saving Time begins in the United States; turn your clock ahead at 2:00 a.m.
- Budoha Day (Hawaii)
- Vesak (Buddha's Birthday) 1st Saturday
- Saturday Market Day (Oregon) 1st Saturday before 5th
- Tax Saturday (UK) 1st Thursday
- Glarus Festival (Switzerland) 1st Friday
- Student Government Day (Massachusetts) Friday after 1st
- Arbor Day (Apache, Navajo, Coconino, Mohave, Yavapai; Arizona) 2nd Friday
- Audubon Day 3rd Sunday & Monday
- Sechselauten (Six Ringing Festival; Switzerland) 3rd Monday
- Patriot's Day (Maine, Massachusetts)
- Boston Marathon Thursday between 19th & 26th
- First Day of Summer (Iceland) Saturday nearest St. George's Day (23rd)
- Peppercorn Day (Bermuda) Monday nearest Feast Day of St. George (23rd)
- St. George's Day (Newfoundland) Sunday after 1st full moon after vernal equinox following Passover
- Lambri (Bright Day; Greece) 3rd Monday
- Patriots' Day (Maine, Massachusetts) 4th Monday
- Fast Day (New Hampshire) 4th Thursday
- Take Our Daughters to Work Day 4th Weekend
- Just Pray No weekend Last Monday
- Confederate Memorial Day (Alabama, Mississippi) Last Friday
- Arbor Day
- Bird Day Wednesday of Last Full Week
- Professional Secretaries Day Last Saturday
- National Sense of Smell Day (USA)

April Indeterminate Holidays

Full Moon Day of 6th Buddhist month (@ Apr/May)
- Vesak Sun enters Aries
- Solar New Year (Southeast Asia)
- aka Thingyan (Burma)
- aka Songkran (Thailand) 10th through 15th Day of 2nd lunar month
- Paro Tsechu (Bhutan) During planting season (@ Apr/May)
- Tyi Wara (Mali) Early April to late July (every 4 years)
- Summer Olympics begin Late April or May
- Alp Aufzug (Switzerland) Before 1st rainfall (@ Apr/May)
- Bobo Masquerade (Burkina Faso) Sometime in April
- World Championship Cow Chip Throwing Contest
- Palm Sunday - Christian
- Palm Sunday - Armenian Christian
- Good Friday - Christian
- Easter - Christian
- Pesach (Passover) - Jewish

References

- Chambers's Book of Days
- Grimm's Geschichte der deutschen Sprache. Cap. "Monate"
- Category:Months ko:4월 ms:April ja:4月 simple:April th:เมษายน

2005

2005 (MMV) is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. 2005 is the World Year of Physics, the Year of the Rooster in the Chinese calendar, and the International Year of the Eucharist in Catholicism. See also Wikipedia's almanac of events for this year.

Events

January

- January 4 - Death of the Governor of Baghdad, Ali Al-Haidri, assassinated by gunmen.
- January 9 - The same storm which pounded the US earlier in the month hits England and Scandinavia, leaving 13 dead with widespread flooding and power cuts.
- January 9 - Mahmoud Abbas is elected to succeed Yasser Arafat as Palestinian Authority president in the Palestinian election.
- January 12 - Deep Impact is launched from Kennedy Space Center by a Delta 2 rocket.
- January 13 - Terrorists enter into Israel from Gaza and open fire on civilians near border, killing 6 and wounding 5 others. Hamas and Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades claim joint responsibility for attack.
- January 14 - The Huygens probe lands on Titan, largest moon of Saturn.
- January 16 - Adriana Iliescu gives birth at 66, the oldest woman in the world to do so. Adriana Iliescu.]]
- January 18 - Terrorists murder 1 person and wound 8 people in Gush Katif, Israel. Hamas claims responsibility.
- January 20 - George W. Bush is inaugurated in Washington, D.C. for his second term as 43rd President of the United States.
- January 20 - Ireland completes metrication.
- January 21 - In Belize's capital city Belmopan, the unrest over the government's new taxes erupts into riots.
- January 23 - Viktor Yushchenko is sworn in as the third President of Ukraine in Kiev, Ukraine.
- January 25 - A stampede at Mandher Devi temple in Mandhradevi during a religious pilgrimage in India kills at least 215, mostly women and small children.
- January 30 - The first free Parliamentary elections in Iraq since 1958 take place.
- January 30 - A Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules transport plane crashes in Iraq, killing 10 British servicemen. Iraqi insurgents release a video claiming to have shot the aircraft down using a missile.

February

- February 6 - The New England Patriots defeat the Philadelphia Eagles 24-21 to win their third Super Bowl in four years.
- February 8 - Danish parliamentary elections continue the center-right coalition led by Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen and his Liberal Party.
- February 9 - An ETA car bomb injures 31 people at a conference centre in Madrid.
- February 10 - North Korea announces that it possesses nuclear weapons as a protection against the hostility it feels from the United States.
- February 10 - Saudi Arabia holds its first ever elections for municipal authorities, in which only men are allowed to vote.
- February 12 - Fire devastates the Windsor Building, a 32 story office block, in Madrid.
- February 14 - A massive suicide bomb blast in central Beirut kills Lebanon's former prime minister Rafik Hariri and at least 15 other people. At least 135 other people were also hurt.
- February 14 - Around 59 people are killed and 200 injured in a fire at a mosque in Tehran, Iran. Iran emissions of greenhouse gases.]]
- February 16 - The Kyoto Protocol comes into effect, without the support of the United States and Australia.
- February 16 - The National Hockey League cancels its 2004-2005 season becoming the first North American professional league to cancel a season due to a labour dispute.
- February 19 - Suicide bombers kill more than 30 people in Iraq as Shia Muslims mark Ashura, their holiest day.
- February 20 - Spanish referendum on the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, passing it by a substantial margin, but on a low turnout.
- February 20 - Early Legislative elections in Portugal result in a landslide victory for José Sócrates and the Socialist Party.
- February 22 - More than 500 people are killed and over 1,000 injured after entire villages are flattened in an earthquake measuring 6.4 on the Richter scale in Zarand region of Kerman province in southern Iran.
- February 25 - The Serial Killer Dennis Rader is apprehended by Wichita Police and the FBI.
- February 25 - Terrorists murder 5 people and wound 50 people in Tel Aviv, Israel. Islamic Jihad claims responsibility for attack.
- February 26 - Hosni Mubarak the president of Egypt asks parliament to amend the constitution to allow multi-candidate presidential elections before September 2005.

March

- March 1 - The U.S. Supreme Court rules the death penalty unconstitutional for juveniles who committed their crimes under age 18.
- March 3 - At 19:17 the 3500-ton freighter, M/V Karen Danielsen, crashes into the Western bridge of the Great Belt Bridge of Denmark, 800m from Funen. All traffic across the bridge is closed, effectively separating Denmark in two.
- March 3 - Millionaire Steve Fossett breaks a world record by completing the first non-stop, non-refueled, solo flight around the world in the Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer.
- March 10 - Tung Chee Hwa's resignation: Tung Chee Hwa, the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, resigns.
- March 11 - In the UK, the controversial Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 was finally given Royal Assent after one of the longest ever sittings by the House of Lords.
- March 13 - First round of Central African Republic elections.
- March 14 - The People's Republic of China ratifies an anti-secession law aimed at preventing Taiwan from declaring independence.
- March 14 - Nearly one million people gathered for an opposition rally in Beirut, a month after the death of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri — the largest rally in Lebanon history. Lebanon, 2005.]]
- March 16 - Ripudaman Singh Malik and Ajaib Singh Bagri, accused of the bombing of the Air India Flight 182 in 1985, are found not guilty on all counts.
- March 19 - A suspected suicide bomber in Doha, Qatar, kills one person and injures about 12 others.
- March 19 - A time bomb explodes in a Muslim shrine in Quetta, southwestern Pakistan, killing at least 29 people and wounding 40.
- March 19 - A mine blast occurs at the Xishui coal mine in Shuozhou and rocks nearby Kangjiayao coal mine, killing up to 59.
- March 20 - At least 250 people in Japan are injured and at least one killed by when a magnitude 7 earthquake struck west of Kyushu Island, just 9km (5.5 miles) below the ocean floor.
- March 21 - 10 killed in the Red Lake High School massacre in Minnesota, the worst school shooting since the Columbine High School massacre.
- March 23 - The United States' 11th Circuit Court of Appeals' 2-1 decision refuses to order the reinsertion of Terri Schiavo's feeding tube.
- March 24 - The Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan reaches its climax with the overthrow of president Askar Akayev.
- March 26 - The Taiwanese government called on 1 million Taiwanese to demonstrate in Taipei in opposition to the Anti-Secession Law of Mainland China. Around 200 000 to 300 000 attended the walk.
- March 28 - The 2005 Sumatran earthquake struck off Sumatra, 3 months after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. At a magnitude of 8.7 it is the second largest earthquake since 1965.

April

- Anti-Japanese demonstrations in China
- April 1 - Newsanchor Peter Jennings hosts what will turn out to be his final World News Tonight telecast.
- April 2 - Pope John Paul II dies, causing widespread grief in the world.
- April 7 - MG Rover, the UK's sole remaining volume producer goes into receivership after a planned alliance with Chinese manufacturer, Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation collapses.
- April 7 - A suicide bomber blows himself up in Cairo's Khan al Khalili market, killing two foreign tourists and wounding seventeen others. A group called "Islamic Pride Brigades" claims responsibility.
- April 8 - Referendum in Curaçao on independence vs. integration with the Netherlands.
- April 9 - Tens of thousands of demonstrators, many of them supporters of Shia cleric Moqtada Sadr, marched through Baghdad denouncing the U.S. occupation of Iraq, two years after the fall of Saddam Hussein, and rallied in the square where his statue was toppled in 2003.
- April 9 - The marriage of The Prince of Wales and Camilla Parker Bowles takes place. Camilla assumes the titles Her Royal Highness and The Duchess of Cornwall.
- April 12 - Fans hurl lit flares onto the field at San Siro Stadium in Milan during a Champions League quarter-final soccer match.
- April 15 - At least twenty one people died and around fifty people were injured in a devastating fire at a hotel in central Paris.
- April 16 - President Lucio Gutierrez of Ecuador declared a state of emergency in the capital city and dissolved the Supreme Court.
- April 17 - Twelve holidaymakers were killed in southern Switzerland when a bus carrying twenty seven people plunged 200 metres into a ravine.
- April 18 - Five people died in ethnic clashes in Iran's south-west Khuzestan province.
- April 19 - Joseph Ratzinger elected Pope Benedict XVI on the second day of the Papal conclave.
- April 20 - fifty six hurt as earthquake hits Fukuoka and Kasuga, Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. The earthquake measured a magnitude of 5.8 on the Richter scale.
- April 20 - President Lucio Gutiérrez of Ecuador is said to have fled after Congress voted to sack him amid growing protests.
- April 21 - A bus crash in Vietnam's Central Highlands has left thirty Vietnamese war veterans dead and four other people hurt.
- April 21 - A gunfight on the edge of the Saudi city of Mecca has left two militants and two members of the security forces dead.
- April 23 - Silvio Berlusconi, prime minister of Italy, re-forms government after its dissolution three days earlier.
- April 25 - A passenger train derails in Amagasaki Hyogo Prefecture Japan killing 107 people and injuring another 456. (see Amagasaki rail crash)
- April 26 - Facing international pressure, Syria withdrew the last of its 14,000 troop military garrison in Lebanon ending its twenty nine year military domination of that country.
- April 27 - The Superjumbo jet aircraft Airbus A380 made its first flight from Toulouse.
- April 30 - Attacks on tourists in the Egyptian capital Cairo leave three militants dead and at least ten people injured.

May

- May 1 - A suicide attack targets a Kurdish funeral in the northern Iraqi town of Talafar, near Mosul, and leaves at least 25 people dead and more than 30 others injured. Earlier, at least five policemen and four civilians were killed in two separate attacks in Baghdad.
- May 2 - 4th president of Singapore, Wee Kim Wee dies from prostate cancer.
- May 2 - A blast at an illegal munitions store in northern Afghanistan kills 28 people and injures at least 13 others.
- May 3 - At least 32 people are killed and nine others injured when three two-storey buildings in the eastern Pakistani city of Lahore collapsed after gas cylinders stored in one of them exploded.
- May 4 - In one of the largest insurgent attacks in Iraq to date, at least 60 people have been killed and dozens wounded in a suicide bombing at a Kurdish police recruitment center in Irbil, northern Iraq.
- May 5 - The United Kingdom votes in the 2005 general election. The Labour Party is re-elected with a substantially reduced majority.
- May 5 - Two homemade bombs explode outside the British consulate in New York, USA.
- May 10 - A live hand grenade lands about 100 feet (30 m) from United States President George W. Bush while he is giving a speech to a crowd in Tbilisi, Georgia, but malfunctions and does not detonate.
- May 11 - Serial killer Michael Ross became first person executed in New England in 45 years.
- May 12 - An election was held in the Cayman Islands 7 months later than originally scheduled due to Hurricane Ivan. It resulted in a change of government, with the United Democratic Party giving four seats to the then-opposition People's Progressive Movement in the 15 member Legislative Assembly.
- May 13 - Uzbek troops kill up to 700 during protests in eastern Uzbekistan over the trials of 23 accused Islamic extremists. President Islam Karimov defends the act.
- May 13 - The United States Department of Defense issues a list of bases to be closed as part of the Base Realignment and Closure process (BRAC 2005).
- May 13 - The final episode of the TV series Star Trek: Enterprise is broadcast in the United States. This episode may mark the end of the Star Trek franchise itself, which dates back to 1966.
- May 15 - A passenger ferry capsizes and sinks in strong winds in the Bura Gauranga River in Bangladesh, leaving over 100 people missing.
- May 16 - George Galloway appears before a U.S. Senate committee, to answer allegations of making money from the Iraqi Oil-for-Food Programme.
- May 17 - Kuwaiti women granted right to vote.
- May 19 - Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith released, effectively completing the Star Wars movie saga begun by George Lucas in 1977 and shattering the opening day box-office record with $50,013,859.
- May 19 - The Canadian House of Commons members narrowly pass two budget bills at second reading allowing the minority Liberal government of Prime Minister Paul Martin to stay in power.
- May 21 - Greece wins the Eurovision Song Contest in Kiev.
- May 25 - Liverpool F.C. win the UEFA Champions League by defeating AC Milan 3-2 in a penalty shootout in Istanbul.
- May 25 - The Acting Chief Executive of Hong Kong, Donald Tsang, resigned for participating in the Chief Executive Election in July. As a result, Henry Tang and Michael Suen had become the Acting Chief Executive and Acting Chief Secretary for Administration respectively.
- May 29 - French referendum on the European Constitution votes resoundingly to reject.
- May 31 - W. Mark Felt is confirmed to be Deep Throat.

June

- June 1 - Dutch referendum on the European Constitution votes to reject, the second country to do so.
- June 5 - Switzerland votes to join the Schengen area and to allow same-sex partnerships.
- June 6 - Syrian Vice President Abdul Halim Khaddam resigns.
- June 9 - Glynn Birch announced as new president of Mothers Against Drunk Driving.
- June 13 - Singer Michael Jackson acquitted of all charges of harming children (see 2005 trial of Michael Jackson).
- June 17 - A 6.7 aftershock,which followed a 5.3 earthquake the previous day, hits California making it the fourth earthquake since June 12 in California. (California earthquakes of June 2005)
- June 17 - Because of "quadruple-witching" options and futures expiration, the New York Stock Exchange sees the heaviest first-hour trading on record. 704 million shares were traded between 9:30-10:30 A.M. 1.92 billion shares were traded for the day.
- June 19 - Election in the Autonomous Community of Galicia, Spain — preliminary results show that Manuel Fraga and the Partido Popular lose control of the autonomous parliament.
- June 21 - Volna booster rocket carrying the first light sail spacecraft (a joint Russian-United States project) failed 83 seconds after its launch, destroying the spacecraft.
- June 23 - The San Antonio Spurs win the NBA World Championship title.
- June 28 - Queen Elizabeth II conducts the International Fleet Review of 167 international warships in the Solent, as part of the Trafalgar 200 celebrations.
- June 30 - Spain joins Belgium and the Netherlands in permitting same-sex marriage.

July

- July 2 - Live 8, a series of 10 simultaneous concerts take place throughout the world, raising interest in the Make Poverty History campaign.
- July 4 - NASA's "Copper bullet" from Deep Impact spacecraft hits Comet Tempel 1, creating a crater for scientific studies.
- July 4 - Violent G8 demonstrations in Gleneagles
- July 6 - The European Parliament rejects the Directive on the patentability of computer-implemented inventions in its second reading in the codecision procedure.
- July 6 - The International Olympic Committee awards the 2012 Summer Olympics to London. London.]]
- July 7 - Four explosions rock the transport network in London, three on the London Underground and one on a bus. Over 50 deaths were reported, and over 200 injured. See 7 July 2005 London bombings.
- July 7 - Al-Qaeda admits to the killing of Egypt's Ambassador, Ihab al-Sherif.
- July 10 - Luxembourgish referendum on the European Constitution votes to accept.
- July 10 - Hurricane Dennis strikes near Navarre Beach, Florida as a Category 3 storm killing 10 people, after killing over 50 people in the Caribbean.
- July 12 - Terrorists kill 5 people and wound 90 people in a crowded mall in Netanya, Israel. Islamic Jihad claims responsibility for attack.
- July 13 - Three trains collide in the Ghotki rail crash in Ghotki, Pakistan, killing over 150 people.
- July 14 - A compromise budget is reached in Minnesota, ending the fourteen-day government shutdown.
- July 16 - Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, the sixth book of the Harry Potter saga by the British writer J. K. Rowling, is released.
- July 19 - President Bush nominates Appeals Court Judge John G. Roberts, Jr. to the United States Supreme Court, following the retirement of Sandra Day O'Connor.
- July 20 - Canada's Civil Marriage Act, legalizing same-sex marriage, receives Royal Assent.
- July 21 - A terrorist attack on London, similar to the July 7 attacks, includes 4 attempted bomb attacks on 3 Underground trains and a London bus. The bombs failed to explode properly, and only one injury was reported.
- July 22 - A Brazilian electrician, Jean Charles de Menezes, is shot dead at a London underground station by police who mistake him for a suicide bomber.
- July 23 - A series of blasts in a resort town in Egypt. See July 23, 2005 Sharm el-Sheikh attacks.
- July 24 - Lance Armstrong wins a record seventh straight Tours de France before his scheduled retirement.
- July 26 - Launch for Space Shuttle Discovery return to flight mission STS-114. This is the first Space Shuttle flight in nearly two and a half years since the breakup of Columbia on its return from mission STS-107.
- July 28 - The Provisional IRA issues a statement formally ordering an end to the armed campaign it has pursued since 1969 and ordering all its units to dump their arms.

August

August
- August 2 - Air France Flight 358 bursts into flames after overshooting the runway at Toronto Pearson International Airport; all aboard survive.
- August 6 - An ATR-72 heading from Italy to Tunisia crashes into the Mediterranean Sea, killing 16 of 39 on board.
- August 9 - Space Shuttle Discovery returns to Edwards Air Force Base at 0814 EDT, completing STS-114, "Return to Flight."
- August 12 - Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter launched.
- August 14 - Helios Airways Flight 552 crashes into a mountain in Greece, killing 121.
- August 16 - West Caribbean Airways Flight 708 crashes into a mountain in Venezuela, killing 152 passengers.
- August 17 - The first forced evacuation of settlers, as part of the Israel unilateral disengagement plan, starts.
- August 17 - Bangladesh is hit by bomb explosions. [http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Bangladesh_hit_by_several_bomb_explosions]
- August 18 - BTK killer Dennis Rader is sentenced to 10 consecutive life sentences.
- August 18 - Peace Mission 2005, the first joint China-Russia military exercise, begins its 8-day training on the Shandong peninsula.
- August 22 - A 4.1 kg meteorite crashes into the Dotito area of Zambezi Escarpment in Zimbabwe, leaving a 15 cm crater.
- August 23 - Israel's unilateral disengagement from 25 Jewish settlements in the Gaza Strip and West Bank ends.
- August 24 - Hong Kong High Court Judge Michael Hartmann rules that sodomy laws were unconstitutional. Michael Hartmann.]]
- August 28 - Terrorist wounds 52 at bus station in Beersheba, Israel. Islamic Jihad claims responsibility for attack.
- August 29 - At least 1,300 are killed, and severe damage is caused along the U.S. Gulf Coast, as Hurricane Katrina strikes the Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama coastal areas. Within hours, levees give way and New Orleans is flooded.
- August 31 - A crowd crush on the Al-Aaimmah bridge in Baghdad kills several hundred civilians (see Baghdad bridge stampede).

September

- September 1 - Oil prices rise sharply following economic effects of Hurricane Katrina.
- September 5 - Mandala Airlines Flight 091 737 crashes in Indonesia killing at least 117. (See airplane accidents in 2005).
- September 7 - Incumbent Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak wins its first multi-party presidential election.
- September 11 - Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi and the LDP are returned to power following the Japanese general elections.
- September 12 - Norwegian parliamentary election
- September 12 - English cricket team draw the final match to win The 2005 Ashes.
- September 14 - September 16 - Largest UN World Summit in history, held in New York City.
- September 17 - Helen Clark leader of the Labour Party is re-elected for a third term in the New Zealand general election
- September 18 - Angela Merkel of the CDU and Gerhard Schröder of the SDP both claim victory in German federal election
- September 18 - Afghan parliamentary election
- September 19 - North Korea agrees to stop building nuclear weapons in exchange for aid and cooperation.
- September 24 - Hurricane Rita hits the US Gulf Coast. The 9th Ward section of New Orleans floods for the 2nd time in a month and a half. Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, and Alabama are also affected.
- September 25 - Polish parliamentary election.
- September 26 - U.S. army reservist Lynndie England is convicted by a military jury on six of seven counts in connection with the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse scandal.
- September 27 - Michaëlle Jean, born in Haiti, becomes the 27th Governor General of Canada, and the first black person to hold that position.
- September 28 - American politician Tom DeLay is indicted on charges of criminal conspiracy by a Texas grand jury.
- September 29 - John G. Roberts, Jr. is confirmed and sworn in as Chief Justice of the United States.
- September 30 - The Parliament of Catalonia passes with 120 plus votes and 15 against, the Project of New Catalan Statute of Autonomy, proclaiming in its article 1, "Catalonia is a nation".

October

- October 1 - 26 people are killed and more than 100 are injured in the 2005 Bali bombings.
- October 1 - The world's largest bank, Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group, is formed by the merger of two Japanese banking conglomerates.
- October 1 - An Australian photojournalist in Afghanistan, Stephen Dupont, films US soldiers two dead Taliban militias' bodies.
- October 2 - 20 people are killed in a shipwreck in Lake George, NY.
- October 4 - Hurricane Stan hits Mexico and Central America killing over 1,153 people.
- October 5 - Flight Lieutenant Malcolm Kendall-Smith charged with refusing to serve in the Iraq war.
- October 7 - UN nuclear agency director Mohamed ElBaradei is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
- October 8 - An earthquake in Kashmir kills about 80,000 people.
- October 9 - Polish presidential election.
- October 12 - The second Chinese human spaceflight Shenzhou 6 launched, carrying Fei Junlong and Nie Haisheng for five days in orbit.
- October 13 - Veselin Topalov wins the FIDE World Chess Championship 2005
- October 15 - The referendum on the new Proposed Iraqi constitution is held.
- October 15 - Riot in Toledo, Ohio during a Neo-Nazi rally surrounding racial issues; 114 arrested
- October 15 - Qinghai-Tibet Railway completed.
- October 16 - US Helicopters and warplanes bomb two villages near Ramadi in western Iraq, killing about 70 people.
- October 18 - The UN tightens the rules for its staff, following several claims of financial impropriety and sexual abuse.
- October 19 - The Trials of Saddam Hussein begin.
- October 19 - Hurricane Wilma swells into a Category 5 storm.
- October 21 - 200th Anniversary of the Battle of Trafalgar, celebrations held around the United Kingdom.
- October 22 - Tropical Storm Alpha forms making the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season the most active on record.
- October 23 - Polish presidential election.
- October 23 - Referendum on the merger of the Kamchatka Oblast and the Autonomous District of Koryakia.
- October 23 - [http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendo_Sobre_a_Proibi%C3%A7%C3%A3o_do_Com%C3%A9rcio_de_Armas_e_Muni%C3%A7%C3%A3o_no_Brasil Guns and Amno Ban Referendum] in Brazil
- October 23 - Bellview Airlines Flight 210 crashes in Nigeria.
- October 24 - Hurricane Wilma makes landfall in southwestern Florida as a category 3 hurricane.
- October 26 - The Chicago White Sox win the 2005 World Series.
- October 26 - Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad calls for Israel to be "wiped off the map" at "World Without Zionism" conference in Tehran, Iran, and condemns peace process.
- October 27 - Two teenagers accidentally electrocute themselves in Seine-Saint-Denis, Paris, France, leading to widespread rioting.
- October 28 - Vice presidential adviser Lewis "Scooter" Libby resigns after being charged with obstruction of justice, perjury and making a false statement in the CIA leak investigation.
- October 29 - A train in Andhra Pradesh, India derails, killing at least 77 people.
- October 29 - At least 61 people are dead and many others wounded in three powerful blasts in the Indian capital, Delhi. See 29 October 2005 Delhi bombings for full details.
- October 30 - Hurricane Beta hits the coast of Nicaragua. It is the thirteenth hurricane of 2005, breaking the 1969 record of 12 hurricanes.

November

- November 1 - The Prince of Wales and The Duchess of Cornwall arrive in the United States for a state visit, their first overseas tour since their marriage.

Chocolate

Chocolate (see below for etymology) describes a number of raw and processed products that originate from the tropical cacao tree. It is a common ingredient in many kinds of sweets, chocolate candy, ice creams, cookies, cakes, pies, and desserts. It is one of the most popular flavours in the world. Chocolate is made from the fermented, roasted, and ground beans taken from the pod of the tropical cacao tree Theobroma cacao native to Central America which have an intensely flavoured bitter taste. The resulting products are known as "chocolate," or in some parts of the world as cocoa. The bean products are known under different names in different parts of the world. In the American chocolate industry:
- Cocoa is the solids of the cacao bean,
- Cocoa butter is the fat component, and
- Chocolate is a combination of the solids and the fat. It is the solid and the fat combination, sweetened with sugar and other ingredients, that is made into chocolate bars, and which is commonly referred to as chocolate by the public. It can also be made into the beverages (called cocoa and hot chocolate) and this was the original form used by the Aztecs and the first European consumers. Chocolate is often produced as small moulded forms in the shape of animals, people, or inanimate objects to celebrate festivals worldwide. For example, moulds of rabbits or eggs for Easter, coins or Saint Nicholas for Christmas, and hearts for Valentine's Day.

Types

Classification

Valentine's Day Chocolate is an extremely popular ingredient, and is available in many types. Different forms and flavors of chocolate are produced by varying the quantities of the different ingredients. Other flavors can be obtained by varying the time and temperature when roasting the beans.
- Unsweetened chocolate: is pure chocolate liquor, also known as bitter or baking chocolate. It is unadulterated chocolate: the pure, ground roasted chocolate beans impart a strong, deep chocolate flavour. With the addition of sugar, however, it is used as the base for American-style layer cakes, brownies, confections, and cookies.
- Dark chocolate: chocolate without milk as an additive; sometimes called plain chocolate. The US Government calls this Sweet Chocolate, and requires a 15% concentration of chocolate liquor. European rules specify a minimum of 35% cocoa solids.
- Couverture: is a term used for cocoa butter rich chocolates of the highest quality. Popular brands of couverture used by professional pastry chefs and often sold in gourmet and specialty food stores include: Valrhona, Felchlin, Lindt & Sprüngli, Cacao Barry, Esprit des Alpes, and Guittard. These chocolates contain a high percentage of chocolate liquor (sometimes 70 percent or more) as well as cocoa butter, at least 30-39%, are very fluid when melted and are generally regarded as having an excellent flavor. Chocolate of this quality is often compared to fine wine because subtleties in taste are usually apparent, especially given the variety of semisweet and bittersweet couvertures with different percentages of sugar and chocolate liquor.
- Milk chocolate: chocolate with milk powder or condensed milk added. The US Government requires a 10% concentration of chocolate liquor. EU regulations specify a minimum of 25% cocoa solids.
- Semi-sweet chocolate: used for cooking purposes; a dark chocolate with higher sugar content and often lower cocoa content than true dark chocolate.
- Bittersweet chocolate: is chocolate liquor (or unsweetened chocolate) to which sugar, more cocoa butter, lecithin, and vanilla has been added. It has less sugar and more liquor than semisweet chocolate, but the two are interchangeable in baking. The best quality bittersweet and semisweet chocolate is produced as couverture and many brands now print the percentage of chocolate liquor it contains on the package. The rule is the higher the percentage of liquor the more bittersweet the chocolate will be.
- White chocolate: a confection based on cocoa butter without the cocoa solids.
- Cocoa powder: There are two types of unsweetened baking cocoa available: natural cocoa (like the sort produced by Hershey's and Nestlé) and Dutch-process cocoa (such as the Hershey's European Style Cocoa and the Droste brand). Both are made by pulverizing partially defatted chocolate liquor, removing nearly all their cocoa butter. Natural cocoa is light in color and somewhat acidic with a strong chocolate flavor. In baking use natural cocoa in recipes which call for baking soda (because it's an alkali). Combining the two creates a leavening action that allows the batter to rise during baking. Dutch-process cocoa is processed with alkali to neutralize its natural acidity. Dutch cocoa is slightly milder in taste, with a deeper and warmer color than natural cocoa. Flavors such as mint, orange, or strawberry are sometimes added to chocolate. A chocolate bar is a bar of chocolate, frequently containing added ingredients such as peanuts, nuts, caramel, or even crisped rice. Other chocolates contain alcoholic liqueurs.

Definition

Strictly speaking, chocolate is any product based 99% on cocoa solid and/or cocoa fat. Because it is used in a vast number of by-products, any change in the cost of making it has a huge impact on the industry. Adding ingredients is an aspect of the taste. On the other hand, reducing cocoa solid content, or substituting cocoa fat with a non-cocoa one, reduces the cost of making it. There has been disagreement in the EU about the definition of chocolate.
- Some want to see the definition allowing for any cocoa solid content and any kind of fat in chocolate. This would allow a merely coloured and flavoured margarine to be sold as being chocolate. In some countries this happens, and a 50% to 70% cocoa solid dark-chocolate, with no additive, for domestic use, is hard to find and expensive.
- Others believe in adhering more strictly to the definition above. liqueur

History

Etymology

The true etymology of the word chocolate is uncertain. Most likely it comes from the Nahuatl language indigenous to central Mexico, although it may have been influenced by the Mayan languages. One popular theory is that it comes from the Nahuatl word xocoatl (IPA ), derived from xoco, bitter, and atl, water. On the other hand, Mexican philologist Ignacio Davila Garibi proposed that "Spaniards had coined the word by taking the Maya word chocol and then replacing the Maya term for water, haa, with the Aztec one, atl".

Origins

The chocolate residue found in a Mayan teapot suggests that Mayans were drinking chocolate 2,600 years ago, the earliest record of cacao use. The Aztecs associated chocolate with Xochiquetzal, the goddess of fertility. In the New World, chocolate was consumed in a bitter and spicy drink called xocoatl, often seasoned with vanilla, chile pepper, achiote (which we know today as annatto) and pimento. Xocoatl was believed to fight fatigue, a belief that is probably attributable to the theobromine content. Chocolate was an important luxury good throughout Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and cocoa beans were often used as currency. Other chocolate drinks combined it with such edibles as maize gruel (which acts as an emulsifier) and honey. The xocoatl was said to be an acquired taste. Jose de Acosta, a Spanish Jesuit missionary who lived in Peru and then Mexico in the later 16th century, wrote of it: :Loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it, having a scum or froth that is very unpleasant to taste. Yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians, where with they feast noble men who pass through their country. The Spaniards, both men and women, that are accustomed to the country, are very greedy of this Chocolaté. They say they make diverse sorts of it, some hot, some cold, and some temperate, and put therein much of that "chili"; yea, they make paste thereof, the which they say is good for the stomach and against the catarrh. Christopher Columbus brought some cocoa beans to show Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, but it remained for Hernando de Soto to introduce it to Europe more broadly. The first recorded shipment of chocolate to the Old World for commercial purposes was in a shipment from Veracruz to Seville in 1585. It was still served as a beverage, but the Europeans added sugar to counteract the natural bitterness, and removed the chili pepper. By the 17th century it was a luxury item among the European nobility. At the end of the 18th century the first solid chocolate we eat today was created in Turin. This chocolate was sold in large quantities from 1826 by Pierre Paul Caffarel. In 1828, Dutchman Conrad J. van Houten patented a method for extracting the fat from cocoa beans and making powdered cocoa and cocoa butter. Van Houten also developed the so-called Dutch process of treating chocolate with alkali to remove the bitter taste. This made it possible to form the modern chocolate bar. It is believed that the Englishman, Joseph Fry made the first chocolate for eating in 1847, followed shortly after by the Cadbury brothers. Daniel Peter, a Swiss candle-maker, joined his father-in-law's chocolate business. In 1867 he began experimenting with milk as an ingredient. He brought his new product, milk chocolate, to market in 1875. He was assisted in removing the water content from the milk to prevent mildewing by a neighbor, a baby food manufacturer named Henri Nestlé. Rodolphe Lindt invented the process called conching, which involves heating and grinding the chocolate solids very finely to ensure that the liquid is evenly blended.

Physiological effects

Lethal toxicity for domesticated animals

In sufficient amounts, the theobromine found in chocolate is toxic to animals such as horses, dogs, parrots, voles, and cats (kittens especially) because they are unable to metabolize the chemical effectively. If they are fed chocolate, the theobromine will remain in their bloodstream for up to 20 hours, and these animals may experience epileptic seizures, heart attacks, internal bleeding, and eventually death. Medical treatment involves inducing vomiting within two hours of ingestion, or contacting a veterinarian. A typical 20 kg dog will normally experience intestinal distress after eating less than 240 g of milk chocolate, but won't necessarily experience bradycardia or tachyarrythmia unless it eats at least a half a kilogram of milk chocolate. If it does not expel the chocolate from its system because of the fat and sugar content, then it would have a 50% chance of surviving after eating 5 kg. Dark, sweet chocolate has about 50% more theobromine and thus is more dangerous to dogs. According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, approximately 1.3 g of baker's chocolate per kilogram of a dog's body weight (0.02 oz/lb) is sufficient to cause symptoms of toxicity. For example, a typical 25 gram baker's chocolate bar would be enough to bring out symptoms in a 20 kg dog.

Health benefits

Recent studies have shown that cocoa or dark chocolate has potent health benefits for people. Dark chocolate is full of the flavonoids epicatechin and gallic acid, which are antioxidants that help protect blood vessels, promote cardiac health, and prevent cancer. It also has been effectively demonstrated to counteract mild hypertension. In fact, dark chocolate has more flavonoids than any other antioxidant-rich food such as red wine, green and black tea, and blueberries. There has even been a fad diet named "Chocolate diet" that emphasises eating chocolate & cocoa powder in capsules. However, consuming milk chocolate or white chocolate, or drinking milk with dark chocolate appears to largely negate the health benefits. Chocolate is also a calorie-rich food, with a high content of saturated fat, so daily intake of chocolate also requires reducing caloric intake of other foods.

Medical applications

Mars, Incorporated, a Virginia-based candy company, spends millions of dollars each year on flavanol research. The company is in talks with pharmaceutical companies to license drugs based on synthesized cocoa flavanol molecules. According to Mars-funded researchers at Harvard, the University of California, and European universities, cocoa-based prescription drugs could potentially help treat diabetes, dementia and other diseases. [http://www.thestandard.com.hk/stdn/std/World/GG27Wd10.html]

Chocolate as a drug

Current research indicates that chocolate is a weak stimulant due to its content of theobromine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15549276] However, chocolate contains too little of this compound for a reasonable serving to create effects in humans that are on par with a coffee buzz. Aptly spoken by the pharmacologist Ryan J. Huxtable, "... [chocolate is] more than a food but less than a drug". However, chocolate is a very potent stimulant for dogs and horses; its use is therefore banned in horse-racing. Some chocolate products contain added synthetic caffeine. horse-racing Chocolate also contains small quantities of the endogenous cannabinoid anandamide and the cannabinoid breakdown inhibitors N-oleoylethanolamine and N-linolenoylethanolamine. Anandamides are produced naturally by the body, in such a way that their effects are extremely targeted (compared to the broad systemic effects of drugs like tetrahydrocannabinol) and relatively short-lived. In experiments N-oleoylethanolamine and N-linolenoylethanolamine interfere with the body's natural mechanisms for breaking down endogenous cannabinoids, causing them to last longer. However, noticeable effects of chocolate related to this mechanism in humans have not yet been demonstrated.

Pleasure of consuming chocolate

Part of the pleasure of eating chocolate is ascribed to the fact that its melting point is slightly below human body temperature and, therefore, melts in the mouth. Chocolate also releases serotonin in the brain which produces feelings of pleasure in a similar way to sunlight. Although chemicals are released in certain areas of the brain, chocolate does not contain a significant amount of these chemicals so as to harm or affect human behaviour. Research has shown that heroin addicts tend to have an increased liking for chocolate because it triggers dopamine release in the brain - an effect, albeit a legal one, similar to that of opium. See also: chocoholic.

Chocolate as an aphrodisiac

Romantic lore commonly identifies chocolate as an aphrodisiac. The reputed aphrodisiac qualities of chocolate are most often associated with the simple sensual pleasure of its consumption. More recently suggestion has been made that serotonin and other chemicals found in chocolate, most notably phenethylamine, can act as mild sexual stimulants. While there is no firm proof that chocolate is indeed an aphrodisiac, giving a gift of chocolate to one's sweetheart is a familiar courtship ritual.

Acne

There is a popular belief that the consumption of chocolate could cause acne. Such an effect could not be shown in scientific studies as the results are inconclusive.[http://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/22/1/62] acne

Lead

Chocolate has one of the highest concentrations of lead among all products that constitute a typical Westerner's diet. This is thought to happen because the cocoa beans are mostly grown in the third-world countries such as Nigeria. Those countries still use tetra-ethyl lead as a gasoline additive and, consequently, have high atmospheric concentrations of lead. According to U.S. Food and Drug Administration, levels of lead in chocolate are sufficiently low that even people who eat large amounts of chocolate every day are not at risk of any adverse effects.

Production

Varieties

There are three main varieties of cacao beans used in chocolates. The most prized, rare, and expensive is Criollo, the native bean of Venezuela. Criollos are less bitter and require shorter roasting periods to develop aroma. Forastero is a large group of wild and cultivated cacaos, probably native from the Amazon basin, significantly hardier and of less quality than Criollo. Trinitario, a natural hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, originated in Trinidad after an introduction of (Amelonado) Forastero to local Criollo crop. Nearly all cacao produced over the past five decades is of the Forastero or lower-grade Trinitario varieties. The share of higher quality Criollos and Trinitarios (so called flavour cacao) is just under 5% per annum [http://www.icco.org/questions/varieties.htm].

Harvesting

Firstly, the cacao pods, containing cacao beans, are harvested. The pods are crushed and left to ferment for about six days, after which the beans are split from the pods and dried. Fine chocolate can be produced by drying the beans for about 7 days in the sun. Accelerated or artificial drying is quicker but produces inferior quality chocolate, such as that used in most mass produced products. The beans are then roasted, graded and ground. Cocoa butter is removed from the resulting chocolate liquor either by being pressed or by the Broma process. The residue is what is known as cocoa powder.

Blending

Chocolate liquor is blended with the butter in varying quantities to make different types of chocolate or couverture. The basic blends of ingredients, in order of highest quantity of cocoa liquor first, are as follows. Note that since American chocolates have a lower percentage requirement of cocoa liquor for dark chocolate, some dark chocolate may have sugar as the top ingredient. # Plain dark chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, and (sometimes) vanilla. # Milk chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, milk or milk powder, and vanilla. # White chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, milk or milk powder, and vanilla. Usually, an emulsifying agent such as soya lecithin is added, though a few manufacturers prefer to exclude this ingredient for purity reasons and to remain GMO-free (soya is a heavily genetically modified crop), sometimes at the cost of a perfectly smooth texture. Please note that the texture is also heavy influenced by processing, specifically conching. The more expensive chocolates tend to be processed longer and thus have a smoother texture and "feel" on the tongue, regardless of whether emulsifying agents are added. Different manufacturers develop their own 'signature' blends based on the above formulas but varying proportions of the different constituents used. The finest plain dark chocolate couvertures contain at least 70% cocoa (solids + butter), whereas milk chocolate usually contains up to 50%. High quality white chocolate couvertures contain only about 33% cocoa. Inferior and mass produced chocolate contains much less cocoa (as low as 7% in many cases) and fats other than cocoa butter. Some chocolate-makers opine that these "brand name" milk chocolate products can not be classed as couverture or even as chocolate, because of the low or virtually non-existent cocoa content. GMO.]]

Conching

:See main article at Conching. The penultimate process is called conching. A conche is a container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders. The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept liquid by frictional heat. The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can detect, hence the smooth feel in the mouth. The length of the conching process determines the final smoothness and quality of chocolate. High quality chocolate is conched for about 72 hrs, lesser grades about 4–6 hours. After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to approximately 45–50°C until final processing.

Tempering

The final process is called tempering. Since cocoa butter exhibits a polymorphous or unstable crystal formation, the mass must be cooled very carefully to encourage the crystals to stabilise in the right order to produce the desired properties of snappy bite, tender melt and a good gloss in the finished product. This is achieved by the tempering process. Firstly, the mass is cooled in stages from about 45 °C to about 27 °C and rewarmed to about 37 °C followed by cooling down to its solid state. The chocolate is then ready for sale as couverture (used for coating chocolates, biscuits and other coated products) or as the finished product, such as solid chocolate bars.

Storing

Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are between 15 and 17 degrees Celsius (59 to 63 degrees Fahrenheit), with a relative humidity of less than 50%. Chocolate should be stored away from other foods as it can absorb different aromas. Ideally, chocolates are packed or wrapped and then placed in proper storage areas with the correct humidity and temperatures.

Chocolate and a vegan diet

It can be difficult to identify vegan chocolate. Milk chocolate does not qualify because of the added milk, but even chocolate labeled as "dark" may contain milk ingredients. For example, Hershey's Special Dark contains milk. Unless the chocolate is specifically labelled as vegan, another complication for strict vegans is that the sugar used in a particular chocolate may have been processed with bone char.

Chocolate in the media

- Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (book, [http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0067992/ movie])
- Chocolat (book)
- Chocolat ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0241303/ movie])
- The Poisoned Chocolates Case (book)
- Like Water for Chocolate (book), ([http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0103994/ movie])
- Consuming Passions ([http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0094907/ movie])
- Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory ([http://imdb.com/title/tt0067992/ movie])

Significant chocolate makers

Popular or historically significant chocolate makers include:
- Cadbury
- Dolfin
- Fazer
- Ferrero SpA
- Ghirardelli (Ghirardelli developed the Broma process)
- Godiva
- Green & Black's
- Guittard
- Hershey's
- Kraft Foods (Milka, Suchard, Toblerone, Côte d'Or, and many others)
- Lindt & Sprüngli (Sprüngli developed conching)
- Michel Cluizel
- Mars Incorporated (M&M's, Dove)
- Nestlé
- Ritter Sport
- Scharffen Berger Chocolate Maker.
- Teuscher
- Valrhona
- Whitman's
- Whittaker's

External links

- [http://www.british-chocolates.info British Chocolates]
- [http://www.chocolate.org Detailed drug information]
- [http://www.chokladkultur.se/english.htm Chocolate Culture]
- [http://www.exploratorium.edu/exploring/exploring_chocolate/ Exploring Chocolate]
- [http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Nov03/HotCocoa-Lee.bpf.html Cornell News on Cocoa]
- [http://www.avma.org/careforanimals/animatedjourneys/livingwithpets/poisoninfo.asp#Misc3 A Pet Owner's Guide to Poisons: Chocolate] ja:チョコレート

Hershey, Pennsylvania

Hershey is an unincorporated community within Derry Township in Dauphin County in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. The community has no legal status as an incorporated municipality and all municipal services are provided by Derry Township. The Census Bureau has also defined a census-designated place (CDP) with the same name for statistical purposes, although the local understanding of the community may differ somewhat from the census definition. As of the 2000 census, the CDP had a total population of 12,771. Wilt Chamberlain scored his 100 point game in Hershey. The community is home to the Hershey's chocolate company, Hersheypark, Hershey's Chocolate World, ZooAmerica, Giant Center, Hershey Theatre, Hershey Spa and Resorts, and Pennsylvania State University's College of Medicine at the Milton S. Hershey Medical Center. It is also the site of the Antique Automobile Club of America headquarters and library. The Hershey Bears play hockey here as well.

General Information

- Zip code: 17033
- Area code: 717
- Local phone code: 298, 312, 489, 508, 520, 531, 533, 534, 707, 835

Geography

Hershey is located at . According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 37.4 km² (14.4 mi²). 37.3 km² (14.4 mi²) of it is land and 0.1 km² (0.1 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 0.35% water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 12,771 people, 5,451 households, and 3,297 families residing in the CDP. The population density is 342.2/km² (886.5/mi²). There are 5,887 housing units at an average density of 157.7/km² (408.7/mi²). The racial makeup of the CDP is 91.07% White, 2.12% African American, 0.06% Native American, 4.87% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.49% from other races, and 1.38% from two or more races. 1.55% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 5,451 households out of which 24.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.9% are married couples living together, 7.1% have a female householder with no husband present, and 39.5% are non-families. 33.7% of all households are made up of individuals and 16.2% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.22 and the average family size is 2.86. In the CDP the population is spread out with 20.3% under the age of 18, 7.4% from 18 to 24, 27.0% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 23.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 42 years. For every 100 females there are 86.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 82.1 males. The median income for a household in the CDP is $45,098, and the median income for a family is $63,385. Males have a median income of $42,013 versus $31,086 for females. The per capita income for the CDP is $28,487. 6.9% of the population and 3.8% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 6.9% of those under the age of 18 and 4.7% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

External links

- [http://www.hersheys.com The Hershey Company]
- [http://www.hersheypa.com Hershey Entertainment and Resorts Company]
- [http://www.hersheymuseum.org Hershey Museum]
- [http://www.hershey.k12.pa.us Derry Township School District]
- [http://www.hmc.psu.edu The Milton S. Hershey Medical Center] Category:Dauphin County, Pennsylvania Category:Census-designated places in Pennsylvania Category:Unincorporated communities in Pennsylvania

Milton S. Hershey

Milton S. Hershey (September 13, 1857 – October 13, 1945) founded the Hershey Chocolate Company. caramel, cocoa drinks, and the famous Hershey's baking chocolate. He experimented and perfected the process of making milk chocolate using the techniques he had learned for adding milk to make caramels. He sold the Lancaster Caramel Company for one million dollars in 1900 but retained the chocolate company and the rights to produce chocolate products. He returned to his birthplace in 1903 to build the world's largest chocolate factory. The location, which was in the center of dairy farmland, would later become Hershey, Pennsylvania, as houses, businesses, churches, and a transportation infrastructure accreted around the plant. Because the land was surrounded by dairy farms, he was able to use fresh milk to mass-produce quality milk chocolate. When Milton and his wife Catherine could not have children, they decided to use their successes to benefit others. They opened the Hershey Industrial School in 1909, renamed in 1951 to the Milton Hershey School. The high school was intended for white boys who were orphans or came from broken homes. In 1918, Hershey transferred the majority of his assets, including his control of the chocolate company, to the formation of the Hershey Trust Co., to benefit the Industrial School. The trust fund has a majority of voting shares in Hershey Foods Corporation which allows it to keep control of the company. It also has 100% control of Hershey Entertainment and Resorts, which owns the Hershey Hotel and Hersheypark, among other properties. All profits from this trust fund are required to go to towards helping the children who go to the school. Due to the massive amounts of confectionery sold to date, the fund is worth billions.

External links

- [http://www.hersheypa.com Hershey Entertainment and Resorts Company] Hershey, Milton S Hershey, Milton S Hershey, Milton S Hershey, Milton S Hershey, Milton S

1894

1894 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 7 - W.K. Dickson receives a patent for motion picture film.
- January 8 - A fire at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois causes a good deal of damage.
- January 9 - New England Telephone and Telegraph installs the first battery-operated telephone switchboard (Lexington, Massachusetts).
- February 15 - 04:51 GMT, French anarchist Martial Bourdin attempts to destroy the Royal Greenwich Observatory, London, England with a bomb.
- March 1 - Thomas McGreevy, Canadian politician and contractor, is released from prison after serving time for defrauding the government
- March 12 - For the first time Coca-Cola is sold in bottles.
- March 15 - Anarchist Jean Pauwels dies in a Madeline church in Paris when his bomb explodes in his pocket
- March 25 - Coxey's Army, the first significant American protest march, departs Massillon, Ohio for Washington D.C.
- May - outbreak of bubonic plague in the Tai Ping Shan area of Hong Kong. The disease killed a total of 2,552 people in the territory that year
- May 1 - Coxey's Army arrives in Washington D.C.
- May 11 - Pullman Strike: Three thousand Pullman Palace Car Company workers go on a "wildcat" (without union approval) strike in Illinois.
- May 14 - Meteor shower in Southern France
- May 14 - Blackpool Tower opened in Blackpool, Lancashire, England
- June 22 - Dahomey becomes French colony
- June 23 - International Olympic Committee is founded at the Sorbonne, Paris, at the initiative of Baron Pierre de Coubertin.
- June 24 - Assassination of Sadi Carnot, president of France
- July 4 - The short-lived Republic of Hawaii is proclaimed by Sanford B. Dole.
- August 1 - Declaration of war between the Qing Empire of China and the Empire of Japan, over their rival claims of influence on their common ally, the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. The event marks the start of the first Sino-Japanese War.
- November 16 - Turkish troops kills 6000 Armenians in Kurdistan
- September 1 - Great Hinckley Fire: A forest fire in Hinckley, Minnesota kills more than 400 people.
- September 4 - In New York City, 12,000 tailors strike against sweatshop working conditions.
- October 15 - Alfred Dreyfus is arrested for spying - Dreyfus affair begins
- 30 October - Domenico Menegatti obtains a patent for a procedure to be applied in producing pandoro industrially.
- November 1 - Russian Tsar Alexander III dies and is succeeded by his son Nicholas II.
- November 16 - Turks kill 16.000 Armenians in Kurdistan
- December 18 - Women in South Australia become the first in Australia to gain the right to vote and to be elected to Parliament.
- December 21 - Mackenzie Bowell becomes Canada's fifth prime minister.
- Western countries give up their extraterritorial rights in Japan
- Tower Bridge in London opened for traffic

Births

January-March

- January 1 - Satyendra Nath Bose, Indian physicist (d. 1974)
- January 20 - Walter Piston, American composer (d. 1976)
- January 30 - King Boris III of Bulgaria (d. 1943)
- January 31 - Isham Jones, American jazz musician (d. 1956)
- February 1 - John Ford, American director and producer (d. 1973)
- February 8 - Ludwig Marcuse, German philosopher (d. 1971)
- February 10 - Harold Macmillan, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1986)
- February 11 - Alfonso Leng, Chilean composer (d. 1974)
- February 11 - Isaac Kolthooff, chemist
- February 14 - Jack Benny, American actor and comedian (d. 1974)
- February 28 - Ben Hecht, American playwright, and film writer (d. 1964)
- March 17 - Paul Green, novelist and Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright (d. 1981)
- March 19 - Moms Mabley, American comedienne (d. 1975)

April-June

- April 10 - Shri Ghanshyam Das Birla, Indian industrialist, Gandhian, and educationist (d. 1983)
- April 13 - Arthur Fadden, thirteenth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1973)
- April 15 - Bessie Smith, American blues singer (d. 1937)
- April 17 - Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev, Soviet politician (d. 1971)
- April 26 - Rudolf Hess, Nazi official (d. 1987)
- May 11 - Martha Graham, American dancer and choreographer (d. 1991)
- May 16 - Walter Yust, American encyclopædia editor (d. 1960)
- May 27 - Louis-Ferdinand Céline, French writer (d. 1961)
- May 27 - Dashiell Hammett, American author (d. 1961)
- May 31 - Fred Allen, American comedian (d. 1956)
- June 5 - Roy Thomson, Canadian publisher (d. 1976)
- June 9 - Nedo Nadi, Italian fencer
- June 14 - Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg (d. 1924)
- June 23 - King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom (d. 1972)

July-September

- July 9 - Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa, Russian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984)
- July 18 - Isaac Babel, Ukrainian writer (d. 1940)
- July 19 - Khawaja Nazimuddin, second Prime Minister of Pakistan (d. 1965)
- July 26 - Aldous Huxley, English author (d. 1963)
- August 3 - Harry Heilmann, baseball player (d. 1951)
- August 28 - Karl Böhm, Austrian conductor (d. 1981)
- September 2 - Joseph Roth, Austrian writer (d. 1939)
- September 13 - J. B. Priestley, English novelist and playwright (d. 1984)
- September 13 - Julian Tuwim, Polish poet (d. 1953)
- September 15 - Jean Renoir, French film director (d. 1979)
- September 24 - Tommy Armour, Scottish golfer (d. 1968)

October-December

- October 5 - Bevil Rudd, South African athlete (d. 1948)
- October 7 - Del Lord, Hollywood director (d. 1970)
- October 14 - E. E. Cummings, American poet (d. 1962)
- October 15 - Moshe Sharett, second Prime Minister of Israel (d. 1965)
- October 25 - Claude Cahun, French photographer and writer (d. 1954)
- November 2 - Alexander Lippisch, German aerodynamics engineer (d. 1976)
- November 24 - Herbert Sutcliffe, English cricketer (d. 1978)
- November 26 - Norbert Wiener, American mathematician (d. 1964)
- November 29 - Lucille Hegamin, American singer and entertainer (d. 1970)
- December 17 - Arthur Fiedler, American conductor (d. 1979)
- December 20 - Robert Menzies, twelfth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1978)

Unknown date

- Chaim Soutine, Russian-born painter (d. 1944)

Deaths

- January 1 - Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, German physicist (b. 1857)
- February 4 - Adolphe Sax, Belgian instrument maker, inventor of the saxophone (b. 1814)
- February 6 - Maria Deraismes, French feminist (b. 1928)
- February 11 - Pasqual Juan Emilio Arrieta y Corera, composer
- June 3 - Karl Eduard Zachariae, German jurist and expert on Byzantine law (b. 1812)
- October 24 - Tsar Alexander III of Russia (b. 1845)
- November 20 - Anton Rubinstein, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1829)
- November 25 - Solomon Caesar Malan, Swiss-born orientalist (b. 1812)
- December 3 - Robert Louis Stevenson, Scottish author (b. 1850)
- December 9 - Pafnuty Chebyshev, Russian mathematician (b. 1821)
- December 12 - John Sparrow David Thompson, Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1845)

Marriages

- January 21 - Lillian Russell & Giovanni Perugini
- May 31 - Joe Keaton & Myra Keaton
- June 7 - C. Oliver Iselin & Hope Goddard
- June 22 - Harry Houdini & Mrs. Harry Houdini
- July 9 - J.M. Barrie & Mary Ansell
- August 28 - Anna Larssen Bjørner & Jens Otto Gyntelberg Larssen
- September 11 - Richard Strauss & Pauline de Ahna
- September 13 - Decima Moore & Cecil Ainslie Walker-Leigh
- November 26 - Tsar Nicholas II & Tsarina Alexandra

Fictional events of the year

Sherlock Holmes returns to London from "The Great Hiatus". Category:1894 ko:1894년 ms:1894 simple:1894 th:พ.ศ. 2437

Lancaster Caramel Company

The Lancaster Caramel Company of Lancaster, Pennsylvania was founded by Milton S. Hershey in 1886. It was Hershey's first successful candy company and helped him build a reputation. The Hershey Chocolate Company became a subsidiary of the Lancaster Caramel Company in 1894. He sold the company for $1 million in 1900, but kept the Hershey Chocolate Company because he felt that there was a large market for chocolate confections. Category:Lancaster, Pennsylvania Category:Confectionery

United States

:For alternative meanings, see the disambiguation page for US, USA, United States, or American. The United States of America is a federal democratic republic situated primarily in central North America. It comprises 50 states and one federal district, and has several territories. It is also referred to, with varying formality, as the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., the States, or simply and most commonly, America. The official founding date of the United States is July 4, 1776, when the Second Continental Congress—representing thirteen British colonies—adopted the Declaration of Independence. However, the structure of the government was profoundly changed in 1788, when the states replaced the Articles of Confederation with the United States Constitution. The date on which each of the fifty states adopted the Constitution is typically regarded as the date that state "entered the Union" (became part of the United States). Since the mid-20th century, following World War II, the United States has emerged as a dominant global influence in economic, political, military, scientific, technological, and cultural affairs.

Geography and climate

The United States shares land borders with Canada (to the north) and Mexico (to the south), and territorial water boundaries with Canada, Russia, the Bahamas, and numerous smaller nations. It is otherwise bounded by the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea, in the west; the Arctic Ocean, in the northernmost areas; and the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea, in the eastern and southeastern areas. Forty-eight of the states are in the single region between Canada and Mexico; this group is referred to, with varying precision and formality, as the continental or contiguous United States, sometimes abbreviated CONUS, and as the Lower 48. Alaska, which is not included in the term contiguous United States, is at the northwestern end of North America, separated from the Lower 48 by Canada. The archipelago of Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean. The capital city, Washington, District of Columbia is a federal district located on land donated by the state of Maryland. (Virginia also donated land, but it was returned in 1847.) The United States also has overseas territories with varying levels of independence and organization. When inland water is included in the total area, only Russia and Canada are larger than the United States; if inland water is excluded, China ranks third and the U.S. ranks fourth. The United States' total area is 3,718,711 square miles (9,631,418 km²), of which land makes up 3,537,438 square miles (9,161,923 km²) and water makes up 181,273 square miles (469,495 km²). The United States' landscape is one of the most varied among those of the world's nations: among its many features are temperate forestland and rolling hills, on the east coast; mangrove, in Florida; the Great Plains, in the center of the country; the Mississippi–Missouri river system; the Great Lakes, four of the five of which are shared with Canada; the Rocky Mountains, west of the Great Plains; deserts and temperate coastal zones, west of the Rocky Mountains; and temperate rain forests, in the Pacific northwest. Alaska's tundra, and the volcanic, tropical islands of Hawaii add to the geographic diversity. Hawaii The climate varies along with the landscape, from tropical in Hawaii and southern Florida to tundra in Alaska and atop some of the highest mountains. Most of the North and East experience a temperate continental climate, with warm summers and cold winters. Most of the South experiences a subtropical humid climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. Rainfall decreases markedly from the humid forests of the Eastern Great Plains to the semi-arid shortgrass prairies on the high plains abutting the Rocky Mountains. Arid deserts, including the Mojave, extend through the lowlands and valleys of the southwest, from westernmost Texas to California and northward throughout much of Nevada. Some parts of California have a Mediterranean climate. Rainforests line the windward mountains of the Pacific Northwest from Oregon to Alaska.

History

American history started with the migration of people from Asia across the Bering land bridge approximately 12,000 years ago following large animals that they hunted into the Americas. These Native Americans left evidence of their presence in petroglyphs, burial mounds, and other artifacts. It is estimated that 2-9 million people lived in the territory now occupied by the U.S. before European contact, and the subsequent introduction of foreign diseases such as small pox that greatly diminished the native populations. Some advanced societies were the Anasazi of the southwest, who inhabited Chaco Canyon, and the Woodland Indians, who built Cahokia, located near present-day St Louis, a city with a population of 40,000 at its peak in AD 1200. Vikings first visited North America around 1000, but did not settle permanently. Following the discovery voyages of Christopher Columbus around 1492, other Europeans began to explore and settle there. During the 1500s and 1600s, the Spanish settled parts of the present-day Southwest and Florida, founding St. Augustine, Florida in 1565 and Santa Fe (in what is now New Mexico) in 1607. The first successful English settlement was at Jamestown, Virginia, also in 1607. Within the next two decades, several Dutch settlements, including New Amsterdam (the predecessor to New York City), were established in what are now the states of New York and New Jersey. In 1637, Sweden established a colony at Fort Christina (in what is now Delaware), but lost the settlement to the Dutch in 1655. This was followed by extensive British settlement of the east coast. The British colonists remained relatively undisturbed by their home country until after the French and Indian War, when France ceded Canada and the Great Lakes region to Britain. Britain then imposed taxes on the 13 colonies, widely regarded by the colonists as unfair because they were denied representation in the British Parliament. Tensions between Britain and the colonists increased, and the thirteen colonies eventually rebelled against British rule. British Parliament, George Washington (1789-1797).]] In 1776, the 13 colonies split from Great Britain and formed the United States, the world's first constitutional and democratic federal republic, after their Declaration of Independence of that year, and the Revolutionary War (1775 to 1783). The original political structure was a confederation in 1777, ratified in 1781 as the Articles of Confederation. After long debate, this was supplanted by the Constitution in 1789, forming a more centralized federal government. Prior to all these was the Albany Congress in 1754, in which a union was first seriously proposed. From early colonial times, there was a shortage of labor, which encouraged unfree labor, particularly indentured servitude and slavery. In the mid-19th century, a major division occurred in the United States over the issue of states' rights and the expansion of slavery. The northern states had become opposed to slavery, while the southern states saw it as necessary for the continued success of southern agriculture and wanted it expanded to the territories. Several federal laws were passed in an attempt to settle the dispute, including the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850. The dispute reached a crisis in 1861, when seven southern states seceded¹ from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America, leading to the Civil War. Soon after the war began, four more southern states seceded. During the war, Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, mandating the freedom of all slaves in states in rebellion, though full emancipation did not take place until after the end of the war in 1865, the dissolution of the Confederacy, and the Thirteenth Amendment took effect. The Civil War effectively ended the question of a state's right to secede, and is widely accepted as a major turning point after which the federal government became more powerful than state governments. Thirteenth Amendment). The title of the painting, from a 1726 poem by Bishop Berkeley, was a phrase often quoted in the era of Manifest Destiny, expressing a widely held belief that civilization had steadily moved westward throughout history. [http://americanart.si.edu/t2go/1lw/1931.6.1.html (more)] ]] During the 19th century, many new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the continent. Manifest Destiny was a philosophy that encouraged westward expansion in the United States. As the population of the Eastern states grew and as a steady increase of immigrants entered the country, settlers moved steadily westward across North America. In the process, the U.S. displaced most American Indian nations. This displacement of American Indians continues to be a matter of contention in the U.S. with many tribes attempting to assert their original claims to various lands. In some areas American Indian populations were reduced by foreign diseases contracted through contact with European settlers, and US settlers acquired those emptied lands. In other instances American Indians were removed from their traditional lands by force. Though some would say the U.S. was not a colonial power until the Spanish-American War when it acquired Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, the dominion exercised over land in North America the United States claimed is essentially colonial. The Philippines became independent in 1946. During this period, the nation also became an industrial power. This continued into the 20th century, which has been termed "the American Century" because of the nation's overriding influence on the world. The US became a center for innovation and technological development; major technologies that America either developed or was greatly involved in improving include the telephone, television, computer, the Internet, nuclear weapons, nuclear power, aviation, and aeronautics. In addition to the Civil War, another major traumatic experience for the nation was the Great Depression (1929 to 1939). The nation has also taken part in several major foreign wars, including World War I and World War II (in both of which the US later joined the Allies). During the Cold War, the US was a major player in the Korean War and Vietnam War, and, along with the Soviet Union, was considered one of the world's two "superpowers". With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the US emerged as the world's leading economic and military power. Beginning in the 1990s, the United States became very involved in police actions and peacekeeping, including actions in Kosovo, Haiti, Somalia and Liberia, and the first Persian Gulf War driving Iraq out of Kuwait. After attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, the United States and other allied nations found themselves involved in what has come to be called the "War on Terrorism," which has primarily encompassed military actions in both Afghanistan and Iraq.

Government

Iraq of the United States.]]

Republic and suffrage

The United States is an example of a constitutional republic, with a government composed of and operating through a set of limited powers imposed by its design and enumerated in the United States Constitution. Specifically, the nation operates as a presidential democracy. There are three levels of government: federal, state, and local. Officials of each of these levels are either elected by eligible voters via secret ballot or appointed by other elected officials. Americans enjoy almost universal suffrage from the age of 18 regardless of race, sex, or wealth. There are some limits, however: felons are disenfranchised and in some states former felons are likewise. Furthermore, the national representation of territories and the federal district of Washington, DC in Congress is limited: residents of the District of Columbia are subject to federal laws and federal taxes but their only Congressional representative is a non-voting delegate.

Federal government

The federal government is the national government, comprising the Legislative Branch (led by Congress), the Executive Branch (led by the President), and the Judicial Branch (led by the Supreme Court). These three branches were designed to apply checks and balances on each other. The Constitution limits the powers of the federal government to defense, foreign affairs, the issuing and management of currency, the management of trade and relations between the states, and the protection of human rights. In addition to these explicitly stated powers, the federal government—with the assistance of the Supreme Court—has gradually extended these powers into such areas as welfare and education, on the basis of the "necessary and proper" clause of the Constitution.

The Congress

necessary and proper The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives consists of 435 members, each of whom represents a congressional district and serves for a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population; in contrast, each state has two Senators, regardless of population. There are a total of 100 senators, who serve six-year terms. The powers of Congress are limited to those enumerated in the Constitution; all other powers are reserved to the states and the people. The Constitution also includes the necessary-and-proper clause, which grants Congress the power to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers."

The President

necessary-and-proper clause At the top level of the executive branch is the President of the United States. The President and Vice-President are elected as 'running mates' for four-year terms by the Electoral College, for which each state, as well as the District of Columbia, is allocated a number of seats based on its representation (or ostensible representation, in the case of D. C.) in both houses of Congress (see U.S. Electoral College). The relationship between the President and the Congress reflects that between the English monarchy and parliament at the time of the framing of the United States Constitution. Congress can legislate to constrain the President's executive power, even with respect to his or her command of the armed forces; however, this power is used only very rarely—a notable example was the constraint placed on President Richard Nixon's strategy of bombing Cambodia during the Vietnam War. The President cannot directly propose legislation, and must rely on supporters in Congress to promote his or her legislative agenda. The President's signature is required to turn congressional bills into law; in this respect, the President has the power—only occasionally used—to veto congressional legislation. Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both houses. The ultimate power of Congress over the President is that of impeachment or removal of the elected President through a House vote, a Senate trial, and a Senate vote. The threat of using this power has had major political ramifications in the cases of Presidents Andrew Johnson, Richard Nixon, and Bill Clinton. The President makes around 2,000 executive appointments, including members of the Cabinet and ambassadors, which must be approved by the Senate; the President can also issue executive orders and pardons, and has other Constitutional duties, among them the requirement to give a State of the Union address to Congress once a year. Although the President's constitutional role may appear to be constrained, in practice, the office carries enormous prestige that typically eclipses the power of Congress: the Presidency has justifiably been referred to as 'the most powerful office in the world'. The Vice President is first in the line of succession, and is the President of the Senate ex officio, with the ability to cast a tie-breaking vote. The members of the President's Cabinet are responsible for administering the various departments of state, including the Department of Defense, the Justice Department, and the State Department. These departments and department heads have considerable regulatory and political power, and it is they who are responsible for executing federal laws and regulations. George W. Bush is the 43rd President, currently serving his second term.

The Courts

George W. Bush The highest court is the Supreme Court, which consists of nine justices. The court deals with federal and constitutional matters, and can declare legislation made at any level of the government as unconstitutional, nullifying the law and creating precedent for future law and decisions. Below the Supreme Court are the courts of appeals, and below them in turn are the district courts, which are the general trial courts for federal law. Separate from, but not entirely independent of, this federal court system are the individual court systems of each state, each dealing with its own laws and having its own judicial rules and procedures. A case may be appealed from a state court to a federal court only if there is a federal question; the supreme court of each state is the final authority on the interpretation of that state's laws and constitution.

State and local governments

supreme court of each state. Note that Alaska and Hawaii are shown at different scales, and that the Aleutian Islands and the uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are omitted from this map.]] The state governments have the greatest influence over people's daily lives. Each state has its own written constitution and has different laws. There are sometimes great differences in law and procedure between the different states, concerning issues such as property, crime, health, and education. The highest elected official of each state is the Governor. Each state also has an elected legislature (bicameral in every state except Nebraska), whose members represent the different parts of the state. Of note is the New Hampshire legislature, which is the third-largest legislative body in the English-speaking world, and has one representative for every 3,000 people. Each state maintains its own judiciary, with the lowest level typically being county courts, and culminating in each state supreme court, though sometimes named differently. In some states, supreme and lower court justices are elected by the people; in others, they are appointed, as they are in the federal system. The institutions that are responsible for local government are typically town, city, or county boards, making laws that affect their particular area. These laws concern issues such as traffic, the sale of alcohol, and keeping animals. The highest elected official of a town or city is usually the mayor. In New England, towns operate directly democratically, and in some states, such as Rhode Island and Connecticut, counties have little or no power, existing only as geographic distinctions. In other areas, county governments have more power, such as to collect taxes and maintain law enforcement agencies.

Political divisions

With the Declaration of Independence, the thirteen colonies proclaimed themselves to be nation states modeled after the European states of the time. Although considered as sovereigns initially, under the Articles of Confederation of 1781 they entered into a "Perpetual Union" and created a fully sovereign federal state, delegating certain powers to the national Congress, including the right to engage in diplomatic relations and to levy war, while each retaining their individual sovereignty, freedom and independence. But the national government proved too ineffective, so the administrative structure of the government was vastly reorganized with the United States Constitution of 1789. Under this new union, the continued status of the individual states as sovereign nation states fell into dispute in 1861, as several states attempted to secede from the union; in response, then-President Abraham Lincoln claimed that such secession was illegal, and the result was the American Civil War. Since the Union victory in 1865, the independent status of the individual states has not been broached again by any state, and the status of each state within the union has been deemed by mainstream officials and academics to be settled as being subordinate to the union as a whole. In subsequent years, the number of states grew steadily due to western expansion, the purchase of lands by the national government from other nation states, and the subdivision of existing states, resulting in the current total of 50. The states are generally divided into smaller administrative regions, including counties, cities and townships. The United States–Canadian border is the longest undefended political boundary in the world. The U.S. is divided into three distinct sections:
- the "continental United States," also known as "the Lower 48" and more accurately termed the conterminous, coterminous or contiguous United States
- Alaska, which is physically connected only to Canada
- the archipelago of Hawaii, in the central Pacific Ocean. The United States also holds several other territories, districts, and possessions, notably the federal district of the District of Columbia, which is the nation's capital, and several overseas insular areas, the most significant of which are American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the United States Virgin Islands. The Palmyra Atoll is the United States' only incorporated territory; it is unorganized and uninhabited. The United States Navy has held a base at a portion of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, since 1898. The United States government possesses a lease to this land, which only mutual agreement or United States abandonment of the area can terminate. The present Cuban government of Fidel Castro disputes this arrangement, claiming Cuba was not truly sovereign at the time of the signing. The United States argues this point moot because Cuba apparently ratified the lease post-revolution, and with full sovereignty, when it cashed one rent check in accordance with the disputed treaty.

Foreign relations and military

sovereign] The immense military and economic dominance of the United States has made foreign relations an especially important topic in its politics, with considerable concern about the image of the United States throughout the world. Reactions towards the United States by other nationalities are often strong, ranging from uninhibited admiration and mimicking of all things American to anti-Americanism. US foreign policy has swung about several times over the course of its history between the poles of strict isolationism and imperialism and everywhere in between. Three of the nation's four military branches are administered by the Department of Defense: the Army, the Navy (including the Marine Corps), and the Air Force. The Coast Guard falls under the jurisdiction of the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime, but is placed under the Department of the Navy in time of war. The combined United States armed forces consist of 1.4 million active duty personnel, along with several hundred thousand each in the Reserves and the National Guard. Military conscription ended in 1973. The United States Armed forces are considered to be the most powerful military (of any sort) on Earth and their force projection capabilities are unrivaled by any other nation. The 2005 defense budget amounted to $401.7 billion, which is an increase of 4% over 2004 and of 35% since 2001. Over 50% of that number is spent in research & development. (For comparison, in 2004 the European Union (considered as the second-largest military force) had a combined total of 1.6 million troops, and a defense budget of €160 billion, with less than 10% of that being spent on R&D.)

Largest cities

The United States has dozens of major cities, including 11 of the 55 global cities of all types — with three "alpha" global cities: New York City, Los Angeles, and Chicago. The figures expressed below are for populations within city limits. A different ranking is evident when considering U.S. metro area populations, although the top three would be unchanged. Note that some cities not listed (such as Atlanta, Boston, Las Vegas, Miami, Nashville, New Orleans, Seattle, and Washington, D.C.) are still considered important on the basis of other factors and issues, including culture, economics, heritage, and politics. The twenty largest cities, based on the United States Census Bureau's 2004 estimates, are as follows:

Economy

The United States has the largest single-country economy in the world, with a per-capita gross domestic product of $40,100. In this market-oriented economy, private individuals and business firms make most of the decisions, and the federal and state governments buy needed goods and services predominantly in the private marketplace. gross domestic product The largest industry of the U.S. is now service, which employs roughly three quarters of the U.S. work force. The United States has many natural resources, including oil and gas, metals, and such minerals as gold, soda ash, and zinc. In agriculture, the U.S. is a top producer of, among other crops, corn, soy beans, and wheat; the United States is a net exporter of food. The U.S. manufacturing sector produces goods such as, cars, airplanes, steel, and electronics, among many others. Economic activity varies greatly from one part of the country to another, with many industries being largely dependent on a certain city or region; New York City is the center of the American financial, publishing, broadcasting, and advertising industries; Silicon Valley is the country’s primary location for high-technology companies, while Los Angeles is the most important center for film production. The Midwest is known for its reliance on manufacturing and heavy industry, with Detroit, Michigan, serving as the center of the American automotive industry; the Great Plains are known as the "breadbasket" of America for their tremendous agricultural output; the intermountain region serves as a mining hub and natural gas resource; the Pacific Northwest for fish and timber, while Texas is largely associated with the oil industry; the Southeast is a major hub for both medical research and the textiles industry. Several countries continue to link their currency to the dollar or even use it as a currency (such as Ecuador), although this practice has subsided since the collapse of the Bretton Woods system. Many markets are also quoted in dollars, such as those of oil and gold. The dollar is also the predominant reserve currency in the world, and more than half of global reserves are in dollars. The largest trading partner of the United States is Canada (19%), followed by China (12%), Mexico (11%), and Japan (8%). More than 50% of total trade is with these four countries. In 2003, the United States was ranked as the third most visited tourist destination in the world; its 40,400,000 visitors ranked behind France's 75,000,000 and Spain's 52,500,000. Labor unions have existed since the 19th century, and grew large and powerful from the 1930s to the 1950s. See Labor history of the United States. Since 1970 they have shrunk in the private sector and now cover fewer than 8% of the workers. However union membership has grown rapidly in the public sector, especially among teachers, nurses, police, postal workers, and municipal clerks. There have been few strikes in recent years. The United States' imports exceed exports by 80%, leading to an annual trade deficit of $700,000,000,000, or 6% of gross domestic product. It is the largest debtor nation in the world, with total gross foreign debt of over $13,000,000,000,000 (2005 estimate); and it absorbs more than 50% of global savings annually. Since the 1980s, the U.S. has increased the use of neoliberal economic policies that reduce government intervention and reduce the size of the welfare state, backing away from the more interventionist Keynsian economic policies that had been in favor since the Great Depression. As a result, the United States provides fewer government-delivered social welfare services than most industrialized nations, choosing instead to keep its tax burden lower and relying more heavily on the free market and private charities. Sixteen states and the District of Columbia have minimum wages higher than the national level ($5.15 per-hour), including the highest, Washington State at $7.35. Twenty-six states are the same as the federal level; two--Ohio and Kansas--are below; and six do not have state laws. America's wealth is relatively highly concentrated. The average C.E.O. earns 500 times the typical amount a worker grosses, this is up from 25 times in the late 1970s. In terms of wealth the top 1% of Americans own 40% of all assets and 50.1% of the country's income goes to the top twenty percent of households. Average wages for the majority of employees have been largely stagnating since the 1970s. America's poverty line defined as a family of four earning less than $19,157 is at 12.7% of the general population. Approximately one out of every five children in the United States grows up below the official poverty line. Among racial groups; African Americans have the lowest median income while Asians had the highest. Regionally, the southern states had the lowest median incomes while the West Coast and New England had the highest. The current Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan remarked that the U.S.’s growing income inequality since the 1970s is, "not the type of thing which a democratic society - a capitalist democratic society - can really accept without addressing."[http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0614/p01s03-usec.html?s=itm] However, Greenspan also noted, "...you can look at the system and say it's got a lot of problems to it, and sure it does. It always has. But you can't get around the fact that this is the most extraordinarily successful economy in history."

Transportation

Alan Greenspan ]] Because the United States is a relatively young nation, most of the development of U.S. cities has taken place since the invention of the automobile. To link its vast territory, the United States built a network of high-capacity, high-speed highways, of which the most important element is the Interstate Highway system, commissioned in the 1950s by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and modeled after the German Autobahn. The United States also has a transcontinental rail system, which is used for moving freight across the lower forty-eight states. Passenger rail service is provided by Amtrak, which serves forty-six of the lower forty-eight states. Many cities in the United States have extensive mass-transit systems. New York City operates one of the world's largest and most heavily used subway systems. The regional rail and bus networks that extend into Long Island, New Jersey, Upstate New York, and Connecticut are among the most heavily used in the world. Air travel is often preferred for destinations over 300 miles (500 kilometers) away. In terms of passengers, seventeen of the world's thirty busiest airports in 2004 were in the U.S., including the world's busiest, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport; in terms of cargo, in the same year, twelve of the world's thirty busiest airports were in the U.S., including the world's busiest, Memphis International Airport. There are several major seaports in the United States; the three busiest are the Port of Los Angeles, California; the Port of Long Beach, California; and the Port of New York and New Jersey. Others include Houston, Texas; Charleston, South Carolina; Savannah, Georgia; Miami, Florida; Portland, Oregon; San Francisco, California; Boston, Massachusetts; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Seattle, Washington; plus, outside the contiguous forty-eight states, Anchorage, Alaska, and Honolulu, Hawaii.

Society

Demographics

Hawaii The mean center of the U.S. population continues to drift farther west and south. The fastest growing region is the western United States followed by the southern portion. According to Census 2000, the states that saw the greatest increases from 1990 were: Nevada (66.3%), Arizona (40%), Colorado (30.6%), Utah (29.6%), Idaho (28.5%), Georgia (26.4%), Florida (23.5%), Texas (22.8%), North Carolina (21.4%), and Washington (21.1%). [http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/phc-t2/tab03.pdf]

Ethnicity and race

:Main article: Racial demographics of the United States The United States is a very racially diverse country. According to the 2000 census, it has 31 ethnic groups with at least one million members each, and numerous others represented in smaller amounts. The majority of Americans descend from white European immigrants who arrived at the establishment of the first colonies (most after Reconstruction). This majority--69.1% in 2000--decreases each year, and is expected to become a plurality within a few decades. The most frequently stated European ancestries are German (15.2%), Irish (10.8%), English (8.7%), Italian (5.6%) and Scandinavian (3.7%). Many immigrants also hail from Slavic countries such as Poland and Russia. Other significant immigrant populations came from eastern and southern Europe and French Canada. Russia Hispanics from Mexico and South and Central America are the largest minority group in the country, comprising 12.5% of the population (2000 census). People of Mexican descent made up 7.3% of the population in the 2000 census, and this proportion is expected to increase significantly in the coming decades. About 12.3% (2000 census) of the American people are African Americans (Blacks). African Americans are spread throughout the country, but their presence is largest in the South. Asian Americans--including Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders--are a third significant minority (3.7% of the population in 2000). Most Asian Americans are concentrated on the West Coast and Hawaii. The largest groups are immigrants or descendants of emigrants from the Philippines, China, India, Vietnam, South Korea, and Japan. Indigenous peoples in the United States, such as American Indians and Inuit, make up 0.9% of the population (2000 census). About 35% live on Indian reservations.

Religion

Polls estimate that just under 80 percent of Americans are Christians of various denominations. The other 20 percent comprises other religions such as Hinduism, Judaism, Islam, and Buddhism, other various faiths, and those without a specific religion. The United States is noteworthy among developed nations for its relatively high level of religiosity. According to a 2004 Gallup poll, about 44% of Americans attend a religious service at least once a week. However, this rate is not uniform across the country; attendance is more common in the Bible Belt—composed largely of Southern and Midwestern states—than in the Northeast and West Coast. In the Southern states, Baptists are the largest group, followed by Methodists; Roman Catholics are dominant in the Northeast and in large parts of the Midwest due to their being settled by descendants of Catholic immigrants from Europe (such as Germany, Ireland, Italy, and Poland) or other parts of North America (mainly Quebec and Puerto Rico). The rest of the country for the most part has a complex mixture of various Christian groups.

Education

West Coast's home at Monticello and the University of Virginia (library building shown above, and designed by Jefferson), the only collegiate campus on the list. Both sites are located in Charlottesville, Virginia.]] In the United States, education is a state, not federal, responsibility, and the laws and standards vary considerably. However, the federal government, through the Department of Education, is involved with funding of some programs and exerts some influence through its ability to control funding. In most states, all students must attend mandatory schooling starting with kindergarten, which children normally enter at age 5, and following through 12th grade, which is normally completed at age 18

Hershey Bears

The Hershey Bears are an ice hockey team in the American Hockey League. They play in Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA at the Giant Center. :Founded: 1938-1939 :Arena: Giant Center (capacity 10,500) :Uniform colors: Brown, silver, and black :Logo design: A bear swatting at a puck :Affiliate: Washington Capitals (NHL) :Division titles won: 12 (1938-39, 1943-44, 1946-47, 1951-52, 1966-67, 1967-68, 1968-69, 1975-76, 1980-81, 1985-86, 1987-88, 1993-94) :Regular season titles won: 5 (1942-43, 1957-58, 1980-81, 1985-86, 1987-88) :League championships won: 8 (1946-47, 1957-58, 1958-59, 1968-69, 1973-74, 1979-80, 1987-88, 1996-97) :Local Media: The Patriot-News

History

Year-by-year Record

American Hockey League International American Hockey League

Team Records

:Goals: 53 Tony Cassolato (1982-83) :Assists: 89 George "Red" Sullivan (1953-54) :Points: 124 Tim Tookey (1986-87) :Penalty Minutes: 432 Steve Martinson (1985-86) :GAA: 1.98 Alfie Moore (1938-39) :SV%: :Career Goals: 260 Dunc Fisher :Career Assists: 636 Mike Nykoluk :Career Points: 808 Mike Nykoluk :Career Penalty Minutes: 1519 Mike Stothers :Career Goaltending Wins: 226 Gordie Henry :Career Shutouts: 18 Gordie Henry :Career Games: 971 Mike Nykoluk

External links

- [http://www.hersheypa.com/events/hershey_bears/ Hershey Bears official site]
- [http://hockeydb.com/ihdb/stats/teamseasons.php?tid=9 The Internet Hockey Database - Hershey Bears (AHL)]
- [http://hockeydb.com/ihdb/stats/teamseasons.php?tid=591 The Internet Hockey Database - Hershey Bears (IAHL)] Category:AHL teams Category:Pennsylvania sports Category:Washington Capitals

United States

Geography and climate

History

Government

Iraq of the United States.]]

Republic and suffrage

Federal government

The Congress

The President

The Courts

State and local governments

Political divisions

Foreign relations and military

Largest cities

Economy

Transportation

Society

Demographics

Ethnicity and race

Religion

Education

Apprenticeship

: If you're looking for the TV show, see The Apprentice. Apprenticeship is a traditional method of training a new generation of skilled crafts practitioners. Apprentices (or in early modern usage "prentices") built their careers from apprenticeships. The system of apprenticeship first developed in the later Middle Ages and came to be supervised by craft guilds and town governments. A master craftsman was entitled to employ young people as an inexpensive form of labour in exchange for providing formal training in the craft. Most apprentices were males, but female apprentices can be found in a number of crafts associated with embroidery, silk-weaving etc. Apprentices were young (usually about fourteen to twenty-one years of age), unmarried and would live in the master craftsman's household. Most apprentices aspired to becoming master craftsmen themselves on completion of their contract (usually a term of seven years), but some would spend time as a journeyman and a significant proportion would never acquire their own workshop. Subsequently governmental regulation and the licensing of polytechnics and vocational education formalised and bureaucratised the details of apprenticeship. Universities still echo apprenticeship schemes in their production of scholars: bachelors are promoted to masters and then produce a thesis under the oversight of a supervisor before the corporate body of the university recognises the reaching of the standard of a doctorate. The modern concept of internship is also analogous. Also similar to apprenticeships are the professional development arrangements for new graduates in the professions of accountancy and the law (that is, lawyers), an British example was training contracts known as 'articles of clerkship'.

United Kingdom

Apprenticeship has a long tradition in the United Kingdom's education system. In early modern England 'parish' apprenticeships under the Poor Law came to be used as a way of providing for poor children of both sexes alongside the regular system of apprenticeships, which tended to provide for boys from slightly more affluent backgrounds. In modern times, however, the system became less and less important, reaching its lowest point in the 1970s. By that time, training programmes were rare and people who were apprentices learnt mainly by example. In 1986, National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) were introduced, in an attempt to revitalise vocational training. Still, by 1990, apprenticeship took up only two-thirds of one percent of total employment. In 1995, the government introduced Modern Apprenticeships (the name was changed back to Apprenticeships in 2004), again to try to improve the image of apprenticeships and encourage young people to take them up. Work was begun on developing a more regulated system, defining frameworks for apprenticeships (such as Business Administration or Accounting) and linking them to particular qualifications and certificates. Those who complete an Advanced Apprenticeship (previously known as an Advanced Modern Apprenticeship) receive National Vocational Qualifications, a technical certificate and an apprenticeship certificate (2005). There are more than 160 (2005) frameworks from four sectors: Personnel, Advice and Guidance, Health and Safety, and Learning and Development. Young people learn core skills rather than concrete subjects or abilities; employers have an employment contract with the apprentices, and at the same time, independent companies offer them formal education. There is no minimum time requirement, although the average time spent completing an apprenticeship is roughly 21 months. By 2001, it was found that the new scheme was less than successful. The number of young people taking up work-based learning had not risen, and many young people and employers were still unaware of exactly what an apprenticeship involved. Changes recommended by a Modern Apprenticeship Advisory Council in 2001 seem to have had an effect. Between 2001/02 and 2004/05 the percentage of young people completing apprenticeships rose from 24% to 39% and in 2005 it was annouced that the council's target of getting 28% of 16-21 year olds to start an apprenticeship had been met.

Germany

Apprenticeships are part of Germany's successful dual education system, and as such form an integral part of many people's working life. Young people can learn one of 356 (2005) apprenticeship occupations (Ausbildungsberufe), such as Doctor's Assistant, Dispensing Optician or Oven Builder. The dual system means that apprentices spend most of their time in companies and the rest in formal education. Usually, they work for three to four days a week in the company and then spend one or two days at vocational school (Berufsschule). These Berufsschulen have been part of the education system since the 19th century. In 1969, a law (the Berufsausbildungsgesetz) was passed which regulated and unified the vocational training system and codified the shared responsibility of the state, the unions, associations and chambers of trade and industry. The dual system was successful in both parts of divided Germany: in the GDR, three quarters of the working population had completed apprenticeships. Although the rigid training system of the GDR, linked to the huge collective combines, did not survive reunification, the system remains popular in modern Germany: in 2001, two thirds of young people aged under 22 began an apprenticeship, and 78% of them completed it, meaning that approximately 51% of all young people under 22 have completed an apprenticeship. One in three companies offered apprenticeships in 2003; in 2004 the government signed a pledge with industrial unions that all companies except very small ones must take on apprentices. The precise skills and theory taught on apprenticeships are strictly regulated, meaning that everyone who has, for example, had an apprenticeship as an Industriekaufmann (someone who works in an industrial company as a personnel assistant or accountant, etc) has learned the same skills and had the same courses in procurement and stocking up, cost and activity accounting, staffing, accounting procedures, production, profit and loss accounting and various other subjects. The employer is responsible for the entire programme; apprentices are not allowed to be employed and have only an apprenticeship contract. The time taken is also regulated; each occupation learnt takes a different time, but the average is 35 months. People who have not taken this apprenticeship are not allowed to call themselves an Industriekaufmann; the same is true for all the 356 occupations.

France

In France, apprenticeships also developed between the ninth and thirteenth centuries, with guilds structured around apprentices, journeymen and master craftsmen, continuing in this way until 1791, when the guilds were suppressed. In 1851 the first law on apprenticeships came into force. From 1919, young people had to take 150 hours of theory and general lessons in their subject a year. This minimum training time rose to 360 hours a year in 1961, then 400 in 1986. The first training centres for apprentices (centres de formation d'apprentis, CFAs) appeared in 1961, and in 1971 apprenticeships were legally made part of professional training. In 1986 the age limit for beginning an apprenticeship was raised from 20 to 25. From 1987 the range of qualifications achieveable through an apprenticeship was widened to include the brevet professionnel (certificate of vocational aptitude), the bac professionnel (vocational baccalaureat diploma), the brevet de technicien supérieur(advanced technician's certificate), engineering diplomas and more. On January 18 2005, President Jacques Chirac announced the introduction of a law on a programme for social cohesion comprising the three pillars of employment, housing and equal opportunities. The French government pledged to further develop apprenticeship as a path to success at school and to employment, based on its success: in 2005, 80% of young French people who had completed an apprenticeship entered employment. The plan aimed to raise the number of apprentices from 365,000 in 2005 to 500,000 in 2009. To achieve this aim, the government is, for example, granting tax relief for companies when they take on apprentices. (Since 1925 a tax has been levied to pay for apprenticeships.) The minister in charge of the campaign, Jean-Louis Borloo, also hoped to improve the image of apprenticeships with an information campaign, as they are often connected with academic failure at school and an ability to grasp only practical skills and not theory.

External links

- [http://www.tatsachen-ueber-deutschland.de/540.0.html Facts about Germany: Apprenticeships, Federal Foreign Office]
- [http://www.apprenticeships.org.uk/ Apprenticeships - a great idea (UK)]
- [http://www.edexcel.org.uk/quals/maf/ UK Apprenticeships, on "Edexcel" site]
- [http://www.lapprenti.com/home.asp L'Apprenti, in French] Category:Education Category:History of education Category:Labor Category:Vocational education

Milton S. Hershey

External links

- [http://www.hersheypa.com Hershey Entertainment and Resorts Company] Hershey, Milton S Hershey, Milton S Hershey, Milton S Hershey, Milton S Hershey, Milton S

1921

1921 (MCMXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 1 - In American football, California defeats Ohio State 28-0 in the Rose Bowl.
- January 2 - The first religious radio broadcast (KDKA AM in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania)
- January 2 - Spanish liner Santa Isabel sinks off Villa Garcia - 244 dead
- January 2 - DeYoung Museum in Golden Gate Park San Francisco opens.
- January 20 - Royal Navy K-boat K5 sinks in the English Channel with all 56 hands
- February 25 - The Democratic Republic of Georgia is occupied by Bolshevist Russia.
- February 27 - The International Working Union of Socialist Parties is formed in Vienna
- February 28 - Russian sailors rebel in Kronstadt - On March 17 the Red Army crushes the rebellion and number of sailors flee to Finland
- March 1 - The city Kiryu, located in Gunma, Japan, is founded.
- March 6 - The Portuguese Communist Party is founded.
- March 8 - Spanish Premier Eduardo Dato Iradier is assassinated while exiting the parliament building in Madrid.
- March 13 - Mongolia declares its independence from China
- March 17 - Marie Stopes opens the first birth control clinic in London, England. The Second Republic of Poland adopts the March Constitution.
- March 18 - The second Peace of Riga between Poland and Soviet Union ending Polish-Soviet war. Despite the recent Polish successes, Soviets annex Ukraine and Belarus.
- April 11 - The Emirate of Transjordan is created, with Abdullah I as emir.
- April 14 - In Britain, labour unions for mining, railway and transportation workers call for a strike - government threatens to call in the army
- April 24 - Referendum in Tyrol supports joining to Germany
- May 1-May 7 - Riots in Palestine of May, 1921
- 2 May-5 July - Third Silesian Uprising, the Poles in Upper Silesia rise against the Germans
- May 5 - Only 13 spectators attend the soccer match between Leicester City and Stockport County, the lowest attendance in The Football League's history.
- May 6 - General strike begins in Norway
- May 8 - Death penalty abolished in Sweden
- May 14 - May 17 - Violent anti-European riots in Cairo and Alexandria
- May 19 - The Emergency Quota Act passes the U.S. Congress establishing national quotas on immigration.
- May 31 - Race riots in Tulsa, Oklahoma
- May 24 - Elections are held for the first time for the new Northern Ireland Parliament.
- June 1 - Tulsa Race Riot of 1921: A race riot in Tulsa, Oklahoma kills 85 people.
- June 26 - In Britain, rain ends 100 days of drought
- July 1 - Coal strike ends in England
- July 11 - The Irish War of Independence comes to an end when a truce is signed between the British Government and the Irish forces.
- July 11 - Mongolia becomes independent of China
- July 14 - A Massachusetts jury finds Nichola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti guilty of first degree murder following a widely-publicized trial.
- July 18 - The first BCG vaccination against tuberculosis
- July 22 - Irish Truce declared in Britain
- July 26 - US President Warren G. Harding receives Princess Fatima of Afghanistan - and Stanley Clifford Weyman...
- July 29 - Adolf Hitler becomes Chairman of the Nazi Party
- July 27 - Researchers at the University of Toronto led by biochemist Frederick Banting announce the discovery of the hormone insulin.
- August - The United States formally ends World War I, declaring a peace with Germany
- August 5 - First radio broadcast of baseball game; Harold Arlin announced Pirates-Phillies game from Forbes Field over Westinghouse KDKA Pittsburgh
- August 11 - 35 degree Celsius in Breslau - heat wave continues elsewhere in Europe as well
- August 23 - King Faisal is crowned in Baghdad
- August 24 - Airship ZR 2 explodes during a test flight near Hull, England - 41 dead
- August 26 - Rising prices cause riots in Munich
- August 29 - Assassination of German politician Matthias Erzberger causes the government to declare martial law
- September 1 - Poplar Strike in London - 9 members of Poplar borough council are arrested
- September 7 - In Atlantic City, New Jersey, the first Miss America Pageant is held.
- September 8 - 16-year-old Margaret Gorman won the Atlantic City Pageant's Golden Mermaid trophy; pageant officials later dubbed her the first Miss America.
- September 12 - Lotta Svärd founded in Finland.
- September 21 - Oppau explosion happened at BASF's nitrate factory in Oppau, Germany - 500—600 dead.
- October 10 - Teaching at the University of Szeged started in Hungary.
- October 21 - Peace conference between Irish and United Kingdom begins in London.
- October 24 - Spanish army defeats rifkabyls.
- October 29 - Construction of the Link River Dam, a part of the Klamath Reclamation Project completed.
- November 9 - Riots in Reykjavík - most of the small police force is injured.
- November 11 - During an Armistice Day ceremony at Arlington National Cemetery, the Tomb of the Unknowns is dedicated by US President Warren G. Harding.
- December 1 - Rising prices cause riots in Vienna.
- December 16 - The Anglo-Irish Treaty establishing the Irish Free State is signed in London. See Ireland/History.
- December 13 - In the Four Power Treaty on Insular Possessions Japan, the United States, United Kingdom, and France agree to recognize the status quo in the Pacific.
- December 29 - William Lyon Mackenzie King becomes Canada's tenth prime minister.
- Agnes Macphail becomes the first woman to enter Canadian parliament
- Change of US presidency from Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) to Warren G. Harding (1921-1923)
- Invention of the vibraphone.
- Abkhazia becomes an autonomous republic within the Soviet Union.

Fictitious Events

1921 is a song on the album Tommy by The Who.

Births

Date unknown

- Norma Macmillan, voice actress (d. 2001)

January

- January 5 - Friedrich Dürrenmatt, Swiss writer (d. 1990)
- January 5 - Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg
- January 10 - Rodger Ward, American race car driver (d. 2004)
- January 19 - Patricia Highsmith, American author (d. 1995)
- January 27 - Donna Reed, American actress (d. 1986)
- January 31 - Carol Channing, American actress
- January 31 - Mario Lanza, American tenor (d. 1959)

February

- February 4 - Betty Friedan, American feminist
- February 4 - K. R. Narayanan, President of India (d. 2005)
- February 5 - John Pritchard, English conductor (d. 1989)
- February 11 - Eva Gabor, Hungarian actress (d. 1996)
- February 11 - Lloyd Bentsen, American politician
- February 14 - Hugh Downs, American game show host and journalist
- February 22 - Wayne Booth, American literary critic (d. 2005)
- February 25 - Pierre Laporte, Canadian statesman (assassinated) (d. 1970)

March

- March 1 - Jack Clayton, British film director
- March 1 - Terence Cardinal Cooke, American Catholic archbishop (d. 1983)
- March 1 - Richard Wilbur, American poet
- March 2 - Robert Simpson, English composer (d. 1997)
- March 3 - Paul Guimard, French writer (d. 2004)
- March 5 - Elmer Valo, Czech Major League Baseball player (d. 1998)
- March 8 - Cyd Charisse, American actress and dancer
- March 11 - Frank Harary, American mathematician (d. 2005)
- March 12 - Giovanni Agnelli, Italian auto executive (d. 2003)
- March 12 - Gordon MacRae, American singer and actor (d. 1986)
- March 13 - Al Jaffee, American cartoonist
- March 13 - Cyril Poole, English cricketer (d. 1996)
- March 20 - Sister Rosetta Tharpe, American singer (d. 1973)
- March 21 - Arthur Grumiaux, Belgian violinist (d. 1986)
- March 25 - Simone Signoret, French actress (d. 1985)
- March 28 - Dirk Bogarde, English actor (d. 1999)

April-May

- April 1 - Beau Jack, American boxer (d. 2000)
- April 8 - Franco Corelli, Italian tenor (d. 2003)
- April 10 - Sheb Wooley, American actor and singer (d. 2003)
- April 14 - Thomas Schelling, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- April 15 - Georgi Beregovoi, Soviet cosmonaut (d. 1995)
- April 16 - Peter Ustinov, English actor and director (d. 2004)
- April 23 - Warren Spahn, baseball player (d. 2003)
- May 2 - Satyajit Ray, Indian filmmaker (d. 1992)
- May 5 - Arthur Leonard Schawlow, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)
- May 6 - Erich Fried, Austrian author (d. 1988)
- May 9 - Sophie Scholl, resistance fighter in Nazi Germany (d. 1943)
- May 9 - Mona Van Duyn, American poet (d. 2004)
- May 11 - Hildegard Hamm-Brücher, German politician
- May 12 - Joseph Beuys, German artist (d. 1986)
- May 12 - Farley Mowat, Canadian writer and naturalist
- May 17 - Dennis Brain, English French horn player (d. 1957)
- May 18 - Sir Michael Epstein, British medical researcher
- May 19 - Karel van het Reve, Dutch writer (d. 1999)
- May 20 - Wolfgang Borchert, German writer (d. 1947)
- May 20 - Hal Newhouser, baseball player (d. 1998)
- May 21 - Andrei Sakharov, Russian physicist and activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (declined) (d. 1989)
- May 23 - James Blish, American science fiction author (d. 1975)
- May 25 - Jack Steinberger, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- May 25 - James C. Quayle, American newspaper publisher
- May 26 - Stan Mortensen, English footballer (d. 1991)
- May 28 - Heinz G. Konsalik, German author (d. 1999)

June-August

- June 1 - Nelson Riddle, American bandleader (d. 1985)
- June 8 - Alexis Smith, Canadian actress (d. 1993)
- June 10 - Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
- June 15 - Errol Garner, American jazz musician (d. 1977)
- June 25 - Celia Franca, Canadian ballet dancer
- June 26 - Violette Szabo, French World War II heroine (d. 1945)
- June 28 - P. V. Narasimha Rao, Prime Minister of India (d. 2004)
- July 4 - Gerard Debreu, French economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004)
- July 4 - Tibor Varga, Hungarian violinist and conductor (d. 2003)
- July 6- Nancy Davis Reagan, wife of U.S President Ronald Reagan
- July 10 - Harvey Ball, American designer (d. 2001)
- July 11 - Ilse Werner, German actress (d. 2005)
- July 13 - Friedrich Peter, Austrian poltitician (d. 2005)
- July 14 - Leon Garfield, English children's author (d. 1996)
- July 14 - Geoffrey Wilkinson, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 15 - Robert Bruce Merrifield, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 17 - František Zvarík, Slovakian actor
- July 17 - Hannah Szenes, Hungarian World War II heroine (d. 1944)
- July 19 - Rosalyn Sussman Yalow, American physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- July 22 - William Roth, U.S. Senator (d. 2003)
- July 30 - Grant Johannesen, American concert pianist (d. 2005)
- August 4 - Maurice Richard, Canadian hockey player (d. 2000)
- August 8 - John Herbert Chapman, Canadian physicist (d. 1979)
- August 9 - J. James Exon Governor of Nebraska and U.S. Senator (d. 2005)
- August 19 - Gene Roddenberry, American television producer (d. 1991)
- August 23 - Kenneth Arrow, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- August 25 - Monty Hall, Canadian actor and game show host

September-December

- September 3 - Thurston Dart, English harpsichordist and conductor (d. 1971)
- September 8 - Harry Secombe, Welsh entertainer (d. 2001)
- September 12 - Stanisław Lem, Polish science fiction writer
- October 2 - Robert Runcie, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 2000)
- October 5 - Bill Willis, American football player
- October 13 - Yves Montand, French singer and actor (d. 1991)
- October 18 - Jesse Helms, U.S. Senator from North Carolina
- October 19 - Gunnar Nordahl, Swedish footballer (d. 1995)
- October 25 - King Michael of Romania
- November 3 - Charles Bronson, American actor (d. 2003)
- November 5 - Princess Fawzia of Egypt
- November 11 - Ron Greenwood, English football manager
- November 14 - Brian Keith, American actor (d. 1997)
- November 22 - Rodney Dangerfield, American actor and comedian (d. 2004)
- November 23 - Fred Buscaglione, Italian singer and actor (d. 1960)
- December 3 - Phyllis Curtin, American soprano
- December 6 - Otto Graham, American football player (d. 2003)
- December 26 - Steve Allen, American actor, composer, comedian, and author (d. 2000)

Deaths

- February 8 - Peter Kropotkin, Russian anarchist (b. 1842)
- February 26 - Carl Menger, Austrian economist (b. 1840)
- February 27 - Schofield Haigh, English cricketer (b. 1871)
- March 2 - King Nicholas I of Montenegro (b. 1841)
- April 27 - Arthur Mold, English cricketer (b. 1863)
- May 5 - Alfred Hermann Fried, Austrian writer and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1864)
- June 5 - Georges Feydeau, French playwright (b. 1862)
- August 2 - Enrico Caruso, Italian tenor (b. 1873)
- September 2 - Henry Austin Dobson, English poet (b. 1840)
- September 11 - Subramanya Bharathy, Tamil poet (b. 1882)
- September 27 - Engelbert Humperdinck, German composer (b. 1854)
- October 25 - Bat Masterson, American gunfighter
- November 28 - `Abdu'l-Bahá, Persian religious leader (b. 1844)
- December 16 - Camille Saint-Saëns, French composer (b. 1835)
- December 31 - Boies Penrose, United States Senator from Pennsylvania (b. 1860)

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Albert Einstein
- Chemistry - Frederick Soddy
- Medicine - not awarded
- Literature - Anatole France
- Peace - Karl Hjalmar Branting, Christian Lous Lange
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Congress of Industrial Organizations

The Congress of Industrial Organizations, or CIO, was a federation of unions that organized industrial workers in the United States and Canada in the 1930s through the 1950s. Originally known as the Committee for Industrial Organization, it was founded in 1935 by eight international unions within the American Federation of Labor to pressure the AFL, which had either opposed or given only lukewarm support to organizing mass production industries, to change its policies. After failing to change AFL policy from within, five of these eight unions split from the AFL to found the Congress of Industrial Organizations as a rival federation in 1938. The CIO rejoined the AFL, forming the new entity known as the American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO), in 1955.

Founding of the CIO

The CIO was born out of a fundamental dispute within the U.S. labor movement over whether and how to organize industrial workers. Those who favored craft unionism believed that the most effective way to represent workers was to defend the advantages they had secured through their skills. In the case of skilled workers, such as carpenters, lithographers, and railroad engineers, this meant maintaining as much control as possible over the work their members did through enforcement of work rules, zealous defense of their jurisdiction to certain types of work, control over apprenticeship programs and exclusion of less skilled workers from membership. Craft unionists were therefore opposed to organizing workers on an industrial basis, i.e., into unions that represented all of the production workers in a particular enterprise, rather than in separate units divided along craft lines. Many of the opponents of industrial unionism were also motivated by a general disdain for industrial workers, whom they considered unorganizable, and for the foreign-born and racial minorities who made up a large number of their ranks. The proponents of industrial unionism, on the other hand, generally believed that these craft distinctions may have been appropriate in those industries in which craft unions had flourished, such as construction or printing, but that they were unworkable in industries such as steel or auto production. In their view, dividing workers in a single plant into a number of different crafts represented by separate organizations, each with its own agenda, would weaken those workers’ bargaining power and leave the majority of them, who had few traditional craft skills, completely unrepresented. While the AFL had always included a number of industrial unions, such as the United Mine Workers and the Brewery Workers, by the 1920s the most dogmatic craft unionists had a strong hold on power within the federation. They used that power to quash any drive toward industrial organizing. The debate over industrial unionism became even fiercer in the 1930s, when the Great Depression nearly eliminated some unions, such as the United Mine Workers of America and the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union. A number of labor leaders, and in particular John L. Lewis of the Mine Workers, came to the conclusion that their own unions would not survive while the great majority of workers in basic industry remained nonunion and started to press the AFL to change its policies in this area. The AFL did, in fact, respond, but with very halting steps. The AFL had long permitted the formation of “federal” unions, which were affiliated directly with the AFL; in 1933 it proposed to use these to organize workers on an industrial basis. The AFL did not, however, promise to allow those unions to maintain a separate identity indefinitely, meaning that these unions might be broken up later in order to distribute their members among the craft unions that claimed jurisdiction over their work. The AFL, in fact, dissolved hundreds of these federal unions in late 1934 and early 1935. The AFL also authorized organizing drives in the automobile, rubber and steel industries at its convention in 1934, but gave little financial support or effective leadership to those unions. The AFL’s timidity only succeeded in making it less credible among the workers it was supposedly trying to organize, particularly in those industries, such as auto and rubber, in which workers had already achieved some organizing success at great personal risk. This dispute came to a head at the AFL’s convention in Atlantic City in 1935, when William Hutcheson, the President of the Carpenters, made a slighting comment about a rubber worker delivering an organizing report. Lewis responded that Hutcheson’s comment was “small potatoes,” to which Hutcheson replied “I was raised on small potatoes, that is why I am so small.” After some more words Lewis punched Hutcheson, knocking him to the ground; Lewis then relit his cigar and returned to the rostrum. The incident – which was also “small potatoes,” but very memorable – helped cement Lewis’ image in the public eye as someone willing to fight for workers’ right to organize. Shortly after the Convention, Lewis called together Charles Howard, President of the International Typographical Union, Sidney Hillman, head of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, David Dubinsky, President of the ILGWU, Thomas McMahon, head of the United Textile Workers, John Sheridan of the Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers Union, Harvey Fremming from the Oil Workers Union and Max Zaritsky of the Hatters, Cap and Millinery Workers to discuss the formation of a new group within the AFL to carry on the fight for industrial organizing. The creation of the CIO was announced on November 8, 1935. Whether Lewis always intended to split the AFL over this issue is debatable; at the outset, the CIO presented itself as only a group of unions within the AFL gathered to support industrial unionism, rather than a group opposed to the AFL itself. The AFL leadership, however, treated the CIO as a pathogen from the outset, refusing to deal with it and demanding that it dissolve. The AFL’s opposition to the CIO, however, only increased the stature of the CIO and Lewis in the eyes of those industrial workers keen on organizing and disillusioned with the AFL’s ineffective performance. Lewis continued to denounce the AFL’s policies while the CIO offered organizing support to workers in the rubber industry who went on strike and formed the Steel Workers Organizing Committee, in defiance of all of the craft divisions that the AFL had required in past organizing efforts, in 1936. In June of 1936 Lee Pressman became the union's General Councel.

Initial Triumphs

The CIO met with dramatic initial successes in 1937, with the UAW winning union recognition at General Motors Corporation after a tumultuous forty-four day sit-down strike, while the SWOC signed a collective bargaining agreement with U.S. Steel. Those two victories, however, came about very differently. The CIO’s initial strategy was to focus its efforts in the steel industry and then build from there. The UAW, however, did not wait for the CIO to lead it. Instead, having built up a membership of roughly 25,000 workers by gathering in federal unions and some locals from rival unions in the industry, the union decided to go after GM, the largest car maker of them all, by shutting down its nerve center, the production complex in Flint, Michigan. The Flint sit-down strike was a risky enterprise from the outset: the union was able to share its plans with only a few workers because of the danger that spies employed by GM would alert management in time to stop it, yet needed to be able to mobilize enough to seize physical control of GM’s factories. The union, in fact, not only took over several GM factories in Flint, including one that made the dies necessary to stamp automotive body parts and a companion facility in Cleveland, Ohio, but held on to those sites despite repeated attempts by the police and National Guard to retake them and court orders threatening the union with ruinous fines if it did not call of the strike. While Lewis played a key role in negotiating the one-page agreement that ended the strike with GM’s promise to recognize the UAW as the exclusive bargaining representative of its employees for a six months period, UAW activists, rather than CIO staff, led the strike. The organizing campaign in the steel industry, by contrast, was a top-down affair. Lewis, who had a particular interest in organizing the steel industry because of its important role in the coal industry where UMW members worked, dispatched hundreds of organizers, many his past political opponents or radicals drawn from the Communist-led unions that had attempted to organize the industry earlier in the 1930’s, to sign up members. Lewis was not particularly concerned with the political beliefs of his organizers, so long as he controlled the organization; as he once famously remarked, when asked about the “reds” on the SWOC staff, “Who gets the bird? The hunter or the dog?” The SWOC signed up thousands of members and absorbed a number of company unions at U.S. Steel and elsewhere, but did not attempt the sort of daring strike that the UAW had pulled off against GM. Instead Lewis was able to extract a collective bargaining agreement from U.S. Steel, which had previously been an implacable enemy of unions, by pointing to the chaos and loss of business that GM had suffered by fighting the UAW. The agreement provided for union recognition, a modest wage increase and a grievance procedure.

Early Setbacks and Successes

The UAW was able to capitalize on its stunning victory over GM by winning recognition at Chrysler and smaller manufacturers. It then focused its organizing efforts on Ford Motor Company, which turned out to be a much more difficult adversary. Ford was not only as anti-union as GM, but even more prone to use thugs, particularly the collection of ex-convicts and gangsters in Harry Bennett's Service Department, to rough up workers interested in joining the Union. The UAW’s organizing drive in Ford produced a good deal of sympathy from the press and public, particularly after the Battle of the Overpass on May 26, 1937, but no concrete organizing successes. At the same time, the UAW was in danger of being torn apart by internal political rivalries. Homer Martin, the first president of the UAW and a former Baptist preacher, expelled a number of the union organizers who had led the Flint sit-down strike and other early drives on charges that they were communists. In some cases, such as Wyndham Mortimer. Bob Travis and Henry Kraus. those charges may have been true; in other cases, such as Victor Reuther and Roy Reuther, they were not. Those expulsions were reversed at the next convention of the UAW in 1939, which expelled Martin instead. He took approximately 20,000 UAW members with him to form a rival union, known for a time as the UAW-AFL, later renamed the Allied Industrial Workers of America. The SWOC encountered equally serious problems: after winning union recognition after a strike against Jones & Laughlin Steel, SWOC's strikes against the rest of "Little Steel," i.e., Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Youngstown Sheet and Tube, National Steel, Inland Steel American Rolling Mills and Republic Steel failed. The steelmakers offered workers the same wage increases that U.S. Steel had offered, In the Memorial Day Massacre on May 30 1937, Chicago police opened fire on a group of strikers who had attempted to picket at Republic Steel, killing ten and seriously wounding dozens. A month and a half later police in Massillon, Ohio used machine guns and shotguns on a crowd of unionists, resulting in three deaths, when one union supporter failed to dim his headlights. The strike collapsed shortly thereafter. The CIO found organizing textile workers in the South even harder. As in steel, these workers had abundant recent first-hand experience of failed organizing drives and defeated strikes, which resulted in unionists being blacklisted or worse. In addition, the intense antagonism of white workers toward black workers and the conservative political and religious milieu made organizing even harder. On the other hand, some independent left-wing unions, such as Mine, Mill and the Food, Tobacco, Agricultural, and Allied Workers Union of America, that aggressively organized both black and white workers had more success than the more cautious Textile Workers Organizing Committee founded by the CIO. Adding to the uncertainties for the CIO was its own internal disarray. When the CIO formally established itself as a rival to the AFL in 1938, renaming itself as the Congress of Industrial Organizations, the ILGWU and the Millinery Workers left the CIO to return to the AFL. Lewis feuded with Hillman and Philip Murray, his long-time assistant and head of the SWOC, over both the CIO's own activities and its relations with the FDR administration. Lewis finally resigned as President of the CIO in 1941, after endorsing Wendell Willkie for President in 1940, choosing his protégé Murray to succeed him. The doldrums did not last forever, however. The UAW finally organized Ford in 1941. The SWOC, now known as the United Steel Workers of America, won recognition in Little Steel in 1941 through a combination of strikes and National Labor Relations Board elections in the same year. Other CIO affiliates made progress during these years in organizing workers in mass transit, packinghouses, tire factories, shipyards and electrical manufacturers while the UAW successfully organized aircraft workers. In addition, after the west coast longshoremen organized in the strike led by Harry Bridges in 1934 split from the International Longshoremen's Association in 1937 to form the International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union, the ILWU joined the CIO. Bridges became the most powerful force within the CIO in California and the west. The Transport Workers Union of America, originally representing the subway workers in New York, also joined, as did the National Maritime Union, made up of sailors based on the east coast, and the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, which represented workers in a range of electrical manufacturing facilities. The AFL continued to fight the CIO, forcing the NLRB to allow skilled trades employees in large industrial facilities the option to choose, in what came to be called "Globe elections," between representation by the CIO or separate representation by AFL craft unions. The CIO now also faced competition, moreover, from a number of AFL affiliates who now sought to organize industrial workers. The competition was particularly sharp in the aircraft industry, where the UAW went head-to-head against the International Association of Machinists, originally a craft union of railroad workers and skilled trade employees. The Dies Committee determined in 1938 that 280 salaried CIO organizers, were members of the CPUSA.

Growth during the Second World War

The Great Depression only ended in the United States with the beginning of World War II, as the draft and stepped up wartime production erased the high unemployment numbers of the 1930s and got the economy back on its feet. It also changed the CIO’s relationship with both employers and the national government. Nearly all the unions that belonged to the CIO were all supportive of both the war effort and of the Roosevelt administration; the Mine Workers led by Lewis, who had taken a more isolationist stand in the years leading up to the war and had opposed Roosevelt’s reelection in 1940, left the CIO in 1942. The CIO, and in particular the UAW, supported a wartime no-strike pledge that aimed to eliminate not only major strikes for new contracts, but also the innumerable small strikes called by shop stewards and local union leadership to protest particular grievances. That pledge did not, however, actually eliminate all wartime strikes; in fact there were nearly as many strikes in 1944 as there had been in 1937. But those strikes tended to be far shorter and far less tumultuous than the earlier ones, usually involving small groups of workers over working conditions and other local concerns. The CIO did not, on the other hand, strike over wages during the war. In return for labor’s no-strike pledge, the government offered arbitration to determine the wages and other terms of new contracts. Those procedures produced modest wage increases during the first few years of the war, but, over time, not enough to keep up with inflation, particularly when combined with the slowness of the arbitration machinery. Yet even though the complaints from union members about the no-strike pledge became louder and more bitter, the CIO did not abandon it. The Mine Workers, by contrast, who did not belong to either the AFL or the CIO for much of the war, engaged in a successful twelve-day strike in 1943. But the CIO unions on the whole grew stronger during the war. The government put pressure on employers to recognize unions to avoid the sort of turbulent struggles over union recognition of the 1930s, while unions were generally able to obtain maintenance of membership clauses, a form of union security, through arbitration and negotiation. Workers also won benefits, such as vacation pay, that had been available only to a few in the past while wage gaps between higher skilled and less skilled workers narrowed. The experience of bargaining on a national basis, while restraining local unions from striking, also tended to accelerate the trend toward bureaucracy within the larger CIO unions. Some, such as the Steelworkers, had always been centralized organizations in which authority for major decisions resided at the top. The UAW, by contrast, had always been a more grassroots organization, but it also started to try to rein in its maverick local leadership during these years. The CIO also had to confront deep racial divides in its own membership, particularly in the UAW plants in Detroit where white workers sometimes struck to protest the promotion of black workers to production jobs, but also in shipyards in Alabama, mass transit in Philadelphia, and steel plants in Baltimore. The CIO leadership, particularly those in more left unions such as the Packinghouse Workers, the UAW, the NMU and the Transport Workers, undertook serious efforts to suppress hate strikes, to educate their membership and to support the Roosevelt Administration’s tentative efforts to remedy racial discrimination in war industries through the Fair Employment Practices Commission. Those unions contrasted their relatively bold attack on the problem with the timidity and racism of the AFL. The CIO unions were less progressive in dealing with sex discrimination in wartime industry, which now employed many more women workers in nontraditional jobs. Some unions who had represented large numbers of women workers before the war, such as the UE and the Food and Tobacco Workers, had fairly good records of fighting discrimination against women; others often saw them as merely wartime replacements for the men in the armed forces.

The Post-War Era

The end of the war meant the end of the no-strike pledge and a wave of strikes as workers sought to make up the ground they had lost, particularly in wages, during the war. The UAW went on strike against GM in November 1945; the Steelworkers, UE and Packinghouse Workers struck in January 1946. Murray, as head of both the CIO and the Steelworkers, wanted to avoid a wave of mass strikes in favor of high-level negotiations with employers, with government intervention to balance wage demands with price controls. That project failed when employers showed that they were not willing to accept the wartime status quo, but instead demanded broad management rights clauses to reassert their workplace authority, while the new Truman administration proved unwilling to intervene on labor’s side. The UAW took a different tack: rather than involve the federal government, it wanted to bargain directly with GM over management issues, such as the prices it charged for its cars, and went on strike for 113 days over these and other issues. The union eventually settled for the same wage increase that the Steelworkers and the UE had gotten in their negotiations; GM not only did not concede any of its managerial authority, but never even bargained over the UAW’s proposals over its pricing policies. These strikes were qualitatively different than those waged over union recognition in the 1930s: employers did not try to hire strikebreakers to replace their employees, while the unions kept a tight lid on picketers to maintain order and decorum even as they completely shut down some of the largest enterprises in the United States. The CIO’s major organizing drive of this era, Operation Dixie, aimed at the textile workers of the South, was a complete failure, due both to the social and political backwardness of the region and the CIO’s reluctance to confront Jim Crow. Although the Steelworkers' Southern outpost in the steel industry remained intact, the CIO and the union movement as a whole remained marginalized in the Deep South and surrounding states. In 1946 the Republican Party took control of both the House and Senate. That Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act, which made organizing more difficult, gave the states authority to pass so-called right to work laws, and outlawed certain types of strikes and secondary boycotts. It also required all union officers to sign an affidavit that they were not Communists in order for the union to bring a case before the NLRB. This affidavit requirement, later declared unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court, was the first sign of serious trouble ahead for a number of Communists in the CIO.

The Red Scare

Persons associated with the Communist Party did, in fact, exercise a good deal of influence in a number of CIO unions in the 1940s, both in the leadership of unions such as the ILWU, UE, TWU and Fur and Leather Workers and in staff positions in a number of other unions. Those persons had an uneasy relationship with Murray while he headed the CIO. He mistrusted the radicalism of some of their positions and was innately far more sympathetic to anti-Communist organizations such as the Association of Catholic Trade Unionists. He also believed, however, that making anti-Communism a crusade would only strengthen labor’s enemies and the rival AFL at a time when labor unity was most important. Murray might have let the status quo continue, even while Walter Reuther and others within the CIO attacked Communists in their unions, if the CPUSA had not chosen to back Henry Wallace's third party campaign for President in 1948. That, and an increasingly bitter division over whether the CIO should support the Marshall Plan, brought Murray to the conclusion that peaceful co-existence with Communists within the CIO was impossible. Murray began by removing Bridges from his position as the California Regional Director for the CIO and firing Lee Pressman as General Counsel of both the Steelworkers and the CIO. Anti-communist unionists then took the battle to the City and State Councils where they attempted to oust Communist leaders who did not support the CIO’s position on the Marshall Plan and Wallace. After the 1948 election, the CIO took the fight one step further, expelling the ILWU, Mine, Mill, the Farm Equipment Union, the Food and Tobacco Workers, and the Fur and Leather Workers after a series of internal trials in the first few months of 1950, while creating a new union, the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, to replace the UE, which left the CIO.

Merger with the AFL

Reuther succeeded Murray, who died in 1952, as head of the CIO. William Green, who had headed the AFL since the 1920s, died the same month. Reuther began discussing merger of the two organizations with George Meany, Green’s successor as head of the AFL, the next year. Many of the differences that once separated the two organizations had faded in the years since the CIO left. The AFL had not only embraced industrial organizing, but included industrial unions, such as the International Association of Machinists, that had become as large as the UAW or the Steelworkers. Both union federations had embraced the cause of civil rights, although the AFL included unions that still openly discriminated against black and other minority workers. The AFL had a number of advantages in those negotiations. It was, for one thing, twice as large as the CIO. The CIO was, for its part, once again facing internal rivalries that threatened to seriously weaken it. Reuther was spurred toward merger by the threats from David McDonald, Murray’s successor as President of the Steelworkers, who disliked Reuther intensely, insulted him publicly and flirted with disaffiliation from the CIO. While Reuther set out a number of conditions for merger with the AFL, such as constitutional provisions supporting industrial unionism, guarantees against racial discrimination, and internal procedures to clean up corrupt unions, his weak bargaining position forced him to compromise most of these demands. Although the unions that made up the CIO survived, and in some cases thrived, as members of the newly created AFL-CIO, the CIO as an organization essentially disappeared in the merger process.

Presidents of the CIO, 1935-1955

- John L. Lewis 1935-1940
- Philip Murray 1940-1952
- Walter Reuther 1952-1955

External links

- [http://www.kersplebedeb.com/mystuff/books/settlers_cio.html The CIO's Integration & Imperialist Labor Policy] part 4 of Chapter VII of Settlers: Mythology of the White Proletariat (by J. Sakai, Morningstar Press 1989) - a history lesson from the first half of the 20th century showing that 'The integration of the CIO, therefore, had nothing to do with increasing job opportunities for Afrikans or building "working class unity.' It was a new instrument of oppressor nation control over the oppressed nation proletarians."

Sitdown strike

A sitdown strike is a form of civil disobedience in which an organized group of workers, usually employed at a factory or other centralized location, take possession of the workplace by "sitting down" at their stations, effectively preventing their employers from replacing them with scab labor or, in some cases, moving production to other locations. Workers had used this technique since the turn of the century, not only in the United States, but also in Italy, Poland, Yugoslavia, and France. The United Auto Workers used this tactic with great success, most famously in the Flint Sit-Down Strike, in which strikers not only held a number of General Motors plants for more than forty days, but repelled the efforts of the police and National Guard to retake them. A wave of sitdown strikes followed, but ended by the end of the decade as the courts and the National Labor Relations Board held that sitdown strikers could be fired. While some sitdown strikes still occur in the United States, they tend to be spontaneous and short-lived. French workers engaged in a number of factory occupations in the wake of the French student revolt in May, 1968. At one point more than twenty-five percent of French workers were on strike, many of them occupying their factories. The sitdown strike was the inspiration for the sit-in, where an organized group of protesters would occupy an area they are not wanted by sitting and refuse to leave until their demands are met. Category:Labour relations Category:Civil disobedience Category:Activism Category:Protests

Cadbury's Creme Egg

The Creme Egg is a brand of chocolate egg produced by Cadbury-Schweppes. The egg has a chocolate "shell", with white and yellow cream inside. Creme Eggs are usually sold individually or in packets of three, six, twelve, and boxes of fifteen and twenty four. They are produced all year long, but are sold in the period between Christmas and Easter. The mascot is the Creme Egg Chick, who appears on the foil wrapping of the eggs, which is usually red, yellow and blue in color. It has been marketed in the UK by the famous question "How do you eat yours?" since the 1980s (there have been many competitions to find the funniest answer to this), and in Australia with the slogan "Don't get caught with egg on your face". In the United States, Creme Eggs are advertised on television with a rabbit (representing the Easter Bunny) who clucks like a chicken.

Varieties

- Creme Eggs
- Easter Egg (hollow)
- Mini Creme Eggs
- Caramel Eggs
- Chocolate Creme Eggs

External links

- [http://www.cadbury.co.uk/EN/CTB2003/about_chocolate/brand_stories/creme_egg/ Cadbury Creme Egg]
- [http://www.x-entertainment.com/articles/0771/ X-Entertainment : A Tribute to Creme Eggs]. Category:Cadbury-Schweppes brands Category:Confectionery

July

July is the seventh month of the year in the Gregorian Calendar and one of seven Gregorian months with the length of 31 days. July begins (astrologically) with the sun in the sign of Cancer and ends in the sign of Leo. Astronomically speaking, the sun begins in the constellation of Gemini and ends in the constellation of Cancer. July was renamed for Julius Caesar; previously, it was called Quintilis in Latin, since it was the fifth month in the Roman calendar which started in March. It also was named because it was the month that Caesar was born. Because of its origin, until the 18th century this month's name was pronounced the same way as the name "Julie". In old Japanese calendar, the month is called fumi zuki (文月). In the pagan wheel of the year July ends at or near to Lughnasadh in the northern hemisphere and Imbolc in the southern hemisphere. Imbolc

Other names

- In the Irish Calendar the month is called Iúil and is the third and last month of the Summer season.
- In Finnish, the month is called heinäkuu, meaning "month of hay".

Trivia

- July begins on the same day of the week as April every year and also January in leap years.
- July's flower is the water lily.
- July's birthstone is the ruby.

Berkeley, California

] Berkeley is a city in the San Francisco Bay Area of northern California, in the United States. Its neighbor to the south is the city of Oakland, California. Its eastern border is formed by the Tilden Regional Park. Berkeley is located in Alameda County. Home to the University of California, Berkeley, the city is known for its leftist politics, eclectic mix of residents, nuclear research, and gourmet food. University of California, Berkeley]

Places

Berkeley is the site of the University of California, Berkeley, the flagship campus of the University of California, and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Lawrence Hall of Science, Space Sciences Laboratory, and Mathematical Sciences Research Institute, which are on the campus grounds. Another well known educational institution in Berkeley is the Graduate Theological Union. Graduate Theological Union] Other notable places include:
- The Campanile belltower (Sather Tower) in the University of California, Berkeley campus.
- Telegraph Avenue, along with People's Park, known as a center for "hippie" activity during the 1960s-70s, marijuana, and now the several "old timers" left over from the age.
- The critically acclaimed restaurant Chez Panisse, the birthplace of California cuisine.
- The Claremont Resort.
- Berkeley High School (the city's only public high school), is considered a [http://www.berkeleyheritage.com/berkeley_landmarks/berkeley_highschool.html Landmark].
- The Berkeley Community Theater, a well known concert hall.
- The bicycle-pedestrian bridge across I-80 at University Avenue, the first of a new generation of people-friendly transportation improvements that focus on access instead of cars.
- The Berkeley Rose Garden. Main streets include:
- Shattuck Avenue, home to the downtown business district, and the Gourmet Ghetto to the north
- Telegraph Avenue
- University Avenue, including the Indian business districts
- San Pablo Avenue, in West Berkeley
- College Avenue, the main commerce area being in the Elmwood Neighborhood. It continues into the Rockridge District of Oakland, California
- Martin Luther King Junior Way
- Solano Avenue, in the Thousand Oaks neighborhood
- 4th Street, with a relatively new retail area which tends towards more expensive specialty stores.

History

The history of the city is inextricably linked to its university. According to the Centennial Record of the University of California, "In 1866...at Founders' Rock, a group of College of California men were watching two ships standing out to sea through the Golden Gate. One of them, Frederick Billings, was reminded of the lines of Bishop Berkeley, 'westward the course of empire takes its way,' and suggested that the town and college site be named for the eighteenth-century British philosopher and poet." In 1873, Governor Newton Booth declared Berkeley to be the "Athens of the West". The University of California first operated in Berkeley in 1872. Much of Berkeley's economy, status, and reputation has long derived from its relationship with the institution. The Pacific School of Religion (PSR), was founded by Congregationalists in 1866 as an ecumenical theological school— the first graduate seminary west of the Mississippi, and one of the two largest religious schools in the world (the other is in Leuven, Belgium). As a result, Berkeley is reputed to have the most churches per capita of any city in the US. The 1910 "First Church of Christ, Scientist", designed by Bernard Maybeck, is a mix of Craftsman, Gothic, and Romanesque styles. It is a National Historic Landmark. Both city and university have long been famed as a center of activist politics and radical social ideas. Early in the twentieth century, West Berkeley became a center for Finnish immigrants, many of whom were Socialists, and who contributed to the growing labor movement in the 1920s and 30s. The Finnish Hall (Toveri Tupa) in the 1800 block of Tenth Street is a now-landmarked community meeting place built by these Finnish activists in 1908. In 1911, Berkeley had a Socialist mayor, J. Stitt Wilson. The movement for women's suffrage was strong in Berkeley. In 1911, when it became law, California became the sixth state in the US to allow women to vote. While surrounding Alameda County as a whole voted against the female right to vote, it won easily in Berkeley. In the late 1920s several large women's organizations combined to form the Berkeley Women's City Club. Its beautiful Italianate building on Durant Avenue, designed by renowned Hearst Castle architect Julia Morgan and completed in 1930, is a California Historical Landmark and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Today Berkeley has one of the still relatively few female fire chiefs in the US, Deborah Pryor, an African-American. The Free Speech Movement began on the Berkeley campus, arguing for free speech on campus, despite its ownership by the Regents. Many student demonstrations against the Vietnam War occurred there in the 1960s, which American news organizations dramatically televised. news Another notable series of events that helped to solidify this popular conception of Berkeley is the repeated takeover by populists of an open lot owned by the University of California. The University has long sought to build on the lot, but the populists have demanded that the lot remain undeveloped and open as a public park. Today this lot is called People's Park and 1960s era culture and spirit still lives on on Telegraph Avenue. Due to the generally liberal to radical views of the Berkeley public, the city is sometimes mockingly referred to as the People's Republic of Berkeley (and have led some to deride it as "Berzerkley"). This reputation—along with its generally temperate weather, high rates of tourism, and large student population—have attracted large populations of transient people, many of whom are homeless. As a result of this large homeless population, and of the city's proximity to high-poverty areas in neighboring Oakland, California, crime rates per capita are often among the top in the state. Berkeley's police department, under its first chief August Vollmer early in the 20th century, was the first in the US to require that officers have a college degree. This department developed the lie detector test, and was one of the first to use fingerprints and radios. In 1973, Berkeley's city council enacted its well known Berkeley Marijuana Initiative. The act ordered Berkeley police to make "no arrests and issue no citations for violations of marijuana laws." In 1986 Berkeley officially became a Nuclear Free Zone after a local vote, disallowing the operation of nuclear reactors within city limits and preventing work from being done on nuclear weapons within its borders. While this can be seen as a logical extension of its radicalism, it also is an ironic play with Berkeley's past: the University of California, Berkeley played a major role in the development of nuclear weapons during World War II, a DOE National Laboratory (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) still sits in the expensive hill-side real estate above the city. The University of California, as of this writing, still has a contract with the U.S. government to manage LBNL, Los Alamos National Laboratory, and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (the latter of which designed all nuclear warheads in the U.S. arsenal, and still maintain the programs of stockpile stewardship). Street signs posted at the city borders declaring its Nuclear Free Zone status are the most noticeable effect of the measure. (The University also once housed a small research reactor which would have been in noncompliance with the Nuclear Free Berkeley Act. This was replaced in the 1990s with a computer laboratory, though the University denies that this had anything to do with the Act). Berkeley also celebrates "Indigenous People's Day" rather than "Columbus Day" in October. In 1989, Berkeley banned the use of polystyrene packaging for keeping McDonald's hamburgers warm. This was one of the earliest events in the plastics recycling movement in the U.S. The city of Berkeley is home to a number of well-known artists, architects, composers, writers and thinkers: Fritjof Capra, Susan Griffin, Christopher Alexander, John Adams, Rita Moreno, Michael Parenti, Michael Lerner, Michael Chabon, and others. The city also has more independent publishers per capita than any other city in the country, and more bookstores per capita. Additionally, many famous bands have originated in Berkeley, including Operation Ivy and Green Day. More recently, Berkeley has become known as a gourmet food center. Even by the standards of the Bay Area it has an exceptional number of specialist food shops and restaurants, the [http://www.berkeleybowl.com/ Berkeley Bowl Supermarket], and a Berkeley restaurant, Chez Panisse, is regarded as the birthplace of California cuisine. Its proprietor, Alice Waters, has been called "the mother of American cooking." Among the shops, [http://cheeseboardcollective.coop/ The Cheeseboard Collective] is a well-known, cooperatively-run bakery and cheese shop. Since the 1970s, the Bay Area Rapid Transit system (BART), a metro train system, has linked Berkeley to San Francisco and the other cities of the Bay Area. Berkeley has nevertheless maintained its own character. Originally the planners of BART proposed an above-ground route through Berkeley, but Berkeley residents voted for a tunnel route instead, whose extra cost was funded by a bond issue. Consequently, BART runs entirely in tunnel through Berkeley, but above ground in the neighboring city of Albany. Berkeley is also serviced by the Berkeley Daily Planet, a free progressive daily newspaper which is a daily ritual for many residents on the throne. The Daily Californian serves the UCB campus and environs. The City is also the birthplace of the nation's first Community Funded radio station. KPFA, still located in downtown Berkeley at 1929 Martin Luther King Blvd, was founded by pacifists in 1948. KPFA still broadcasts a strongly anti-war message and is now the flagship station of the Pacifica Network. An unattributed quote about Berkeley reads, "Three things have come out of Berkeley: LSD, BSD, and the SCA. This is no coincidence." Its accuracy is questionable; LSD is better said to have come out of Switzerland, Harvard, and Stanford. Interestingly, fewer people live in Berkeley today than did 55 years ago. Few other cities in the western United States can make this claim. Population by decade:
- 1890 - 5,101
- 1900 - 13,214
- 1910 - 40,434
- 1920 - 56,036
- 1930 - 82,109
- 1940 - 85,547
- 1950 - 113,805
- 1960 - 111,268
- 1970 - 116,716
- 1980 - 103,328
- 1990 - 102,724
- 2000 - 102,743

Geography

2000Berkeley is located at 37°52'18" North, 122°16'29" West (37.871775, -122.274603). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 45.9 km² (17.7 mi²). 27.1 km² (10.5 mi²) of it is land and 18.8 km² (7.2 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 40.94% water. Berkeley borders the cities of Albany, Oakland, and Emeryville and unincorporated Contra Costa County including Kensington as well as San Francisco Bay.

Demographics

mi² The city's population is culturally diverse, with a significant portion in transient residence attending UC Berkeley. As of the census of 2000, there are 102,743 people, 44,955 households, and 18,656 families residing in the city. The population density is 3,792.5/km² (9,823.3/mi²), one of the highest in California. There are 46,875 housing units at an average density of 1,730.3/km² (4,481.8/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 59.17% White, 13.63% Black or African American, 0.45% Native American, 16.39% Asian, 0.14% Pacific Islander, 4.64% from other races, and 5.57% from two or more races. 9.73% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 44,955 households out of which 17.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.9% are married couples living together, 9.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 58.5% are non-families. 38.1% of all households are made up of individuals and 7.9% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.16 and the average family size is 2.84. In the city the population is spread out with 14.1% under the age of 18, 21.6% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 22.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.2% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 32 years. For every 100 females there are 96.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 95.1 males. The median income for a household in the city is $44,485, and the median income for a family is $70,434. Males have a median income of $50,789 versus $40,623 for females. The per capita income for the city is $30,477. 20.0% of the population and 8.3% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 13.4% of those under the age of 18 and 7.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

Transportation

Berkeley is served by Amtrak, AC Transit, BART (Downtown Berkeley Station, North Berkeley, and Ashby Station) and bus shuttles operated by major employers including UC Berkeley and Lawrence Berkeley National Labs. The only major freeway is Interstate 80. Each day there is an influx of thousands of cars into the city by commuting UC faculty, staff and students, making parking for more than a few hours an expensive proposition. Berkeley has one of the highest rates of bicycle and pedestrian commuting in the nation. Berkeley is the safest city of its size for pedestrians and cyclists, a fact that new research is attributing to a [http://www.tsc.berkeley.edu/html/newsletter/Spring04/syntax.html safety in numbers] effect. Berkeley has modified its original grid roadway structure through use of diverters and barriers, moving most traffic out of neighborhoods and onto arterial streets (visitors often find this confusing, because the diverters are not shown on all maps). Berkeley maintains a separate grid of arterial streets for bicycles, called Bicycle Boulevards, with bike lanes and lower amounts of car traffic than the major streets to which they often run parallel. Berkeley hosts a car sharing network run by [http://www.citycarshare.org/ City CarShare]. Rather than owning (and parking) their own cars, members share a group of cars parked nearby. Online reservation systems keep track of hours and charges.

Mayors

[http://www.cityofberkeley.info/mayor/ City of Berkeley Mayor's Office]
- Tom Bates, Mayor of Berkeley (elected 2002), married to California State Assemblymember and former Berkeley Mayor Loni Hancock
- Shirley Dean, mayor 1994-2002
- Loni Hancock, mayor 1986-1994, currently representing [http://democrats.assembly.ca.gov/members/a14/ California State Assembly District 14], the East Bay Area, married to Berkeley Mayor and former California State Assemblymember of District 14 Tom Bates

Notable Berkeley residents (past and present)

- Ben Affleck - (actor)
- Billie Joe Armstrong - (member of punk rock band Green Day)
- Tim Armstrong - (member of punk rock bands Rancid and Operation Ivy)
- David Brower - (Environmentalist)
- Michael Chabon - (author)
- Francis Ford Coppola - (filmmaker and vintner)
- Robert Crumb - (cartoonist)
- Adam Duritz - musician
- Daniel Ellsberg - (military analyst)
- John Fogerty - (singer/songwriter)
- Matt Freeman - (member of punk rock bands Rancid and Operation Ivy)
- Allen Ginsberg - (poet)
- Whoopi Goldberg (actress and comedian)
- Wavy Gravy - (activist and 1960s counterculture icon)
- Davey Havok - (singer for AFI)
- Patty Hearst - (Newspaper heiress and kidnap victim)
- Gregory Hoblit - (film and television director)
- David Horowitz - (1960s radical turned conservative activist)
- Ishi, last of the Yahi - "Stone Age" Native American
- Theodore Kaczynski - (Unabomber)
- Phil Lesh - (former Grateful Dead bassist)
- George Lucas - (filmmaker)
- Country Joe McDonald - Singer/Songwriter
- Roger Montgomery - Urban Designer, City Planner, Architect, Dean University of California, Berkeley
- Huey P. Newton - (Black Panther Party)
- Robert Oppenheimer - (directed construction of nuclear bomb)
- Mario Savio - (1960s Free Speech Movement icon)
- Edward Teller - (nuclear physicist, thermonuclear weapons)
- Lars Ullrich - (Metallica drummer)
- Alice Waters -(restaurateur)
- Saul Zaentz - (film producer)
- Pete Wilson - (former governor of California)
- Norman Mineta - (Transportation Secretary under US President George W. Bush)
- Gordon Moore - (co-founder of Intel) See also these lists of notable people associated with the University, most of whom probably didn't commute.
- List of Nobel laureates associated with UC Berkeley
- List of UC Berkeley faculty
- List of UC Berkeley alumni

Points of interest

- Berkeley Community Theatre
- Berkeley Repertory Theatre
- Chez Panisse
- Cloyne Court Hotel, a member of the University Students' Cooperative Association
- Fantasy Records
- Hearst Greek Theatre
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Regional Parks Botanic Garden
- University of California, Berkeley
- University of California Botanical Garden

External links

- [http://www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/ Official Government Website]
- [http://www.cityofberkeley.info/ City Of Berkeley, California]
- [http://www.berkeleypubliclibrary.org/ Berkeley Public Library]
- [http://www.berkeleyheritage.com/berkeley_landmarks/landmarks.html Berkeley Landmarks]
- [http://democrats.assembly.ca.gov/members/a14/ California State Assembly District 14]
- [http://www.berkeleydailyplanet.com/ Berkeley Daily Planet Website]
- [http://www.peoplespark.org/ People's Park]
- [http://www.yeah-berkeley.org/ Homeless Youth Shelter]
- [http://www.bffa1227.org/ Berkeley Firefighters Association]
- [http://www.terragalleria.com/california/california.berkeley.html Photos of Berkeley]
- [http://www.dailycal.org/ The Daily Californian]
- [http://www.csua.berkeley.edu/~tobin/wiki/moin.cgi/FrontPage Berkeley Wiki], a local community wiki / visitor's guide Category:Cities in California Category:Alameda County, California
- Berkeley Category:University towns ja:バークリー (カリフォルニア州)

Milton Hershey

External links

- [http://www.hersheypa.com Hershey Entertainment and Resorts Company] Hershey, Milton S Hershey, Milton S Hershey, Milton S Hershey, Milton S Hershey, Milton S

The Hershey Company

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Chocolate

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Helen Caldicott and the Hershey Company

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Helen Caldicott

Dr. Helen Caldicott (born 1938) is an Australian physician and anti-nuclear advocate who has founded several associations dedicated to fighting nuclear weapons and nuclear power.

Life

Born in Melbourne, Australia, Caldicott gained a medical degree in 1961 from the University of Adelaide Medical School. In 1977 she joined the staff of the Children's Hospital Medical Center in Boston and was a teacher at the Harvard Medical School in pediatrics from 1977 to 1978. In 1980 she left her medical career in order to concentrate on calling the world's attention to what she perceived as the "insanity" of the world's increasing supply of nuclear weapons and national stockpiles. She made a name for herself, particularly in 1982, when she was featured in the Canadian Oscar-winning documentary If You Love This Planet. Caldicott claimed that the Hershey Foods Corporation produced chocolate carrying strontium 90 because of the proximity of the Three Mile Island disaster to Hershey's Philadelphia factory. According to Caldicott strontium 90 that fell on the Pennsylvania grass found its way into the milk of the local dairy cows. Hershey has not responded to this claim. Also in 1982, she founded the Women’s Action for Nuclear Disarmament (WAND) in the United States, which was later renamed Women’s Action for New Directions, a group dedicated to reducing or redirecting military spending towards what it perceives as unmet social issues. During her time in the United States from 1977 to 1986, Caldicott also got heavily involved with Physicians for Social Responsibility (founded originally in 1961), an organization of 23,000 doctors committed to educating others on nuclear dangers. She also worked abroad to establish similar groups that focused on education about nuclear power, nuclear weapons and nuclear war. One such international group (International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War) was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985. In 1990 Caldicott decided to contest the seat of Division of Richmond (a traditional National Party of Australia seat in northern New South Wales) in the federal election the time that Charles Blunt was the leader of the conservative National Party of Australia, and represented the division. Caldicott's entry in the race allowed the Labor candidate, Neville Newell, to win the seat despite polling only 27% of the primary vote. This was an example of the operation of preferential voting in Australia in operation. Caldicott also had a good chance of winning the seat outright - if all of Gibbs' preferences had gone to her as directed, she would drawn ahead of Newell and won on his preferences. In that Division 73,794 were enrolled and 70,571 (95.6%) voted. After the failure of her bid for the House of Representatives, she made an ill-fated attempt in 1991 to enter the Australian Senate by winning Australian Democrats support to replace New South Wales Senator Paul McLean, who had recently resigned. However, party rules dictated that the appointment go to the highest unelected person on their New South Wales Senate ticket from the previous election, which saw Karin Sowada take the position automatically instead of Caldicott. Caldicott’s investigative writings had the distinction of being nominated and subsequently chosen as Project Censored’s #2 story in 1990. Citing the research of Soviet scientists Valery Burdakov and Vyacheslav Fiin, Caldicott argued that NASA’s Space Shuttle program was destroying the Earth’s ozone and that 300 total shuttle flights would be enough to "completely destroy the Earth's protective ozone shield". In 1995 Caldicott returned to the United States once again where she lectured for the New School of Social Research on the Media, Global Politics, and the Environment. She also hosted a weekly radio show on WBAI (Pacifica) and became the Founding President of the STAR (Standing for Truth About Radiation) Foundation. Caldicott began researching and writing her book, The New Nuclear Danger: George W. Bush’s Military Industrial Complex which was published in 2001. While touring with that book, she founded the Nuclear Policy Research Institute, headquartered in Washington, DC. NPRI seeks to facilitate an ongoing public education campaign in the mainstream media about what it perceives as the dangers of nuclear weapons and power programs and policies. It is led by both Caldicott and Executive Director Julie R. Enszer. NPRI has attempted to create a consensusto end the nuclear age by means of public education campaigns, establishing a presence in the mainstream media, and sponsoring high-profile symposia. In 2003, Caldicott was awarded the Lannan Foundation Prize for Cultural Freedom. She has also been awarded 19 honorary doctoral degrees and was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize by Nobel Laureate Linus Pauling. The Smithsonian Institute has named Caldicott as one of the most influential women of the 20th century. Dr. Caldicott has written numerous articles and has published five books. As of 2005 she splits her time between the United States and Australia and continues to lecture widely to promote her views on nuclear weapons and power.

Books

- Nuclear Madness (1979)
- Missile Envy (1984)
- If You Love This Planet: A Plan to Heal the Earth (1992)
- A Desperate Passion: An Autobiography (1996)
- The New Nuclear Danger: George W. Bush’s Military Industrial Complex (2001).
- Metal of Dishonor: How Depleted Uranium Penetrates Steel, Radiates People and Contaminates the Environment (1997) Publisher: International Action Center ISBN: 0965691608
Quotes

- "Nuclear Power is a cancer industry" - Dr. Helen Caldicott, speaking in an interview with Blase Bonpane on the Pacifica radio network on May 22, 2005.
External links

- [http://www.helencaldicott.com/ www.helencaldicott.com] - Dr. Caldicott's official website
- [http://www.nuclearpolicy.org/ www.nuclearpolicy.org] - Nuclear Policy Research Institute
- [http://www.psr.org/ www.psr.org] - Physicians for Social Responsibility
- [http://www.wand.org/ www.wand.org] - Women's Action for New Decisions (Women's Action for Nuclear Disarmament)
- [http://www.big-picture.tv/index.php?id=30&cat=&a=52/ Watch a video clip of Helen Caldicott at Big Picture TV]
- [http://www.freespeech.org/videodb/index.php?action=detail&video_id=10315&browse=0 Video of Speech on Depleted Uranium from Freespeech.org] Caldicott, Helen Caldicott, Helen Caldicott, Helen Caldicott, Helen

Hypogeum of Hal-Saflieni

The Hypogeum in Hal-Saflieni, Paola, Malta, is an subterranean structure excavated c. 2500 B.C. Thought to be originally a sanctuary, it became a necropolis in prehistoric times. It is the only prehistoric underground temple in the world. The Hypogeum was dipicted on a 2 cents 5 mils stamp issued in the Maltese Islands in 1980 to commemorate the acceptance by UNESCO of this unique structure in the World Heritage site list. It was closed to visitors between 1992 and 1996 for restoration works. It was discovered by accident in 1902 when workers cutting cisterns for a new housing development broke through its roof. The study of the structure was first entrusted to Father Manuel Magri of the Society of Jesus, but later the work was completed in a more scientific manner by Sir Temi Zammit.

First Level

The first level is very similar to tombs found in Xemxija in Malta. Some rooms are natural caves which were later artificially extended. From evidence, one can say that this is the oldest level. The second level was only opened when the original builders found that that this level was no longer adequate. This level is only ten metres below the street level.

Second Level

The level shows magnificent skill in stonework. One can see several important rooms, such as the Main Room, the Holy of Holies, and the Oracle Room.

The Main Chamber

This chamber is roughly circular and carved out from rock. A number of trilithon entrances are represented, some blind, and others leading to another chamber. Most of the wall surface has received a red wash of ochre. It was from this room that the statuettes of the sleeping lady were recovered. Nowadays these figurines are held in the Museum of Archaeology, in Valletta, Malta.

The Oracle Room

The Oracle Room is roughly rectangular and one of the smallest side chambers has the pecularity of producing a powerful echo. A man's voice echoes, whereas a woman's voice does not echo. This room has an elaborately painted ceiling, consisting of spirals in red ochre with circular blobs.

The Snake Pit

The second level contains a 2 m deep pit which could have been used for either keeping snakes or collecting alms.

Holy of Holies

The focal point of this room is a porthole within a trilithon, which is in turn framed within a larger trilithon and yet another large trilithon.

Third Level

The lower storey contained no bones or offering only water. It strongly suggests storage, maybe of grain.

References

-
-

External links

- [http://www.heritagemalta.org/hypogeum.html Official Website of the Hypogeum]
- [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=130 Unesco World Heritage Site] Category:Archaeological sites Category:Buildings and structures in Malta

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